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i[W • PETER BULLIONS, D.D., W 



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wV AUTHOR OF ENGLISH, LATIN AND GREEK GRAMMARS, &c. >W 

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5HEU3GH & COMPANY, 

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PETER BULLIONS, D.D., 

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PEE FACE. 



This book has been carefully revised, in order to have it serve 
more completely as a school-book for those pupils who have not 
time allowed, in their school studies, for a profitable use of all 
contained in a treatise such as the author's " Analytical and Prac- 
tical Grammar of the English Language." To pupils who may 
be favored with time for a more extended course of instruction, 
and who may require the larger book in higher classes, this little 
book will be serviceable ; as in both books the Definitions and 
Rules are substantially the same throughout, and are presented 
in the same order. 

Each " Lesson " of this book presents one topic for study, by 
such a method as will secure an intelligible comprehension and a 
practical application of the principles of Grammar contained in 
the lesson. (See Lesson 10, page 18.) After the large type, 
which presents the subject in concise language, is an " Illustra- 
tion," which, in simple, familiar language, explains the full, prac- 
tical meaning of the definitions. The " Observations " are to be 
used at the option of the teacher. The " Questions " are so 
framed as to bring out the leading facts contained in the preced- 
ing text. [It is recommended, that so far as practicable, the 
pupils be encouraged to recite "topically," without the formal 
use of the questions.] Following the questions are many and 
varied "Exercises " for the practical application of the knowl- 
edge acquired, and to fix it in the most effectual manner on the 
understanding. The importance of these exercises can not be 
over estimated, and they should on no account be neglected. 
Subjoined is the requirement that the pupils are to construct 
language in accordance with the principles, etc., under considera- 
tion, and thus show to the teacher their understanding of the 
lesson. By this last feature, "Composition" soon becomes 
pleasing and profitable to pupils. 



IV PREFACE. 

A simple and practicable system of Analysis of Sentences, 
which has been found so useful in the Analytical and Practical 
Grammar, is presented in this book in its proper place. After a 
pupil has studied Etymology, he will easily understand this 
"Analysis," and can readily apply its principles throughout 
Syntax, when correcting the " Exercises " on the Rules, etc. 

The lessons on " Punctuation/' " Capitals," etc., have been en- 
larged, and practical exercises and suggestions may be added at 
the discretion of the teacher. 

Some Introductory Exercises have been inserted as preliminary 
to the more formal study of the Etymology. These Exercises 
will interest beginners in the uses of correct language, and pre- 
pare their minds for the regular " Lessons." Some classes may 
be profitably entertained by frequent use of these and similar 
exercises from the teacher. 

In making new plates for the present edition, the publishers 
have taken occasion to present it in more attractive form. Its 
improved typographical appearance will commend it to its many 
friends. 

Qg|p The numbers in parenthesis, in the text, in fu]l- faced 
figures, refer to the current numbers in this Grammar. Where 
fuller explanation is desirable, the foot-notes refer to the sec- 
tions of the Analytical and Practical Grammar, and the manual 
of Analysis, Parsing, and Composition. 

Mat, 1870. 



CONTENTS. 



*#* The figures in full-faced type are to the numbers of the paragraphs. 

PAGE 

Introductory Exercises iii 

Definition and Division, 1—5 1 

PART FIRST.— ORTHOGRAPHY. 
Letters and Syllables, 6—26 2—3 

PART SECOND.— ETYMOLOGY. 

Division of Words, 27—30 4 

Parts of Speech, 31—35 4 

Of Nouns, 36 5 

Person, 46—52 '. 7 

Gender, 53—61 8 

Number, 62—77 11 

Case, 78—90 14 

Of the Article, 91—101 16 

Of the Adjective, 102—126 18 

Comparison of, 111 21 

Pronouns, 127 24 

Personal, 135 24 

Compound, 145 2(5 

Relative, 148 23 

Interrogative, 162 31 

Adjective, 167 32 

JSxercises on Nouns, Articles, Adjectives, and Pronouns 34 

Of Verbs, Division of, 178 35 

Forms of, 191 33 

Inflection— Voice, 202—212 40 

Of the Moods, 213 42 

Tenses, 226—255 45—49 

Number and Person, 256 49 

Conjugation. 268 51 

The Verb " To Be," 273 52 

The Verb " To Love," 274 55 

Negative Form of the Verb, 278 61 

Interrogative Form, 281 62 

Progressive Form of the Active Voice, 285 64 

Passive Voice, 287 65 

Defective and Impersonal Verbs, 290—292 75 

Irregular Verbs, 288 69 

Adverbs, 293 76 

Prepositions, 302 78 

Conjunctions , 311 81 

Interjections, 317 83 

Mow to Distinguish the Parts of Speech, 321 84 



Yl CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Parsing, 326 86 

Model of, 328 87 

Exercises in, 330 88 

PART THIRD.-SYNTAX. 

Analysis of Sentences, Definitions, 331 90 

Parts of a Sentence, 340 91 

Classes of Sentences, 3 50 93 

Single Sentences, 355 94 

Sueject of a Sentence, 360 95 

Modifications of. 368 96 

Modifications of Modifying Words, 370 97 

The Predicate, 372 98 

Modification of, 381 99 

Limiting Clauses, 388 100 

Compound Sentences, 399 102 

Classification of Sentences 103 

Directions for Analysis, 403 103 

Models, 404 104 

Construction of Sentences, 405 107 

Parts of Syntax, 407 108 

Mules of Syntax, 411—543 109 

I.— Substances in Apposition, 411 109 

II.— Adjective and Substantive, 414 '. 119 

III.— The Article, 424 112 

IV. — Personal Pronouns, 429 113 

V.— Relative and Antecedent, 435 114 

VI.— Subject Nominative, 441 116 

VII.— Nominative Absolute, 444 117 

VIII.— Verb and its Subject, 449 117 

IX.— The Predicate Substantive, 458 119 

X.— Object of a Verb, 460 120 

XI.— Objective after a Preposition, 469 122 

XII. — Prepositions after Certain Words, 475 124 

XIII.— The Possessive Case, 479 126 

XIV.- Subjunctive Mood. 486 127 

XV.— Infinitive Mood, 492 128 

XVT.— Construction of Participles, 501 130 

XVII— The Order of Time, 514 133 

XVIII.— Construction of Adverbs, 516 134 

XIX. — Conjunctions, 525 : 137 

XX. — Prepositions, 540 141 

XXI. — Interjections, 542 141 

Ellipsis, 547 143 

Not admissible, 549 144 

Syn tactical Parsing, Model of, 551 145 

Promiscuous Exercises, 552 147 

Punctuation, 553 148 

Capitals, 581 152 

Com pos ition , 583 154 

Construction of Sentences, 602. 156 

Exercises in Composition, 609 160 

PART FOURTH.— PROSODY. 

Elocution, 611 163 

Versification, 621 164 

Appendix 168 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 



A manual of English Grammar can give little more than the 
outlines of the science ; and these, to be brought within reason- 
able compass, must be stated in very concise form. A fruitful 
source of failure and disappointment in the study of Grammar 
is found in the willingness of teachers to rest in the bare state- 
ment of the author, and to confine the instruction for the most 
part to the mastery by the pupil of the formal definitions and 
rules. These are but the framework, the foundation upon which 
to build. 

Since it is the office of grammar to teach us how to write and 
speak correctly, manifestly that method of study, and those 
exercises, are most profitable which afford the largest and most 
careful'practice, in writing and speaking — in the application of the 
rules and principles which the Grammar sets forth. 

In presenting to the public this revised edition of a little work 
which has so long stood the test of practical use in the school 
room, the following hints, as aids to its more successful teaching, 
are submitted, especially to the consideration of teachers of limited 
experience. 

1. The first essential is thorough 'preparation by the 
teacher, involving familiarity with each subject, and with the 
scope and relation of the whole. We can not teach better than 
we know ; and this preparation involves not simply such a 
knowledge of Grammar as shall aid us ourselves in the correct 
use of language, but that fuller and more exhaustive study which 
will enable us to adapt its teachings to the comprehension 
of those who look to us for instruction. 

2. Each new subject should be carefully illustrated before 
the pupil undertakes the task of committing to memory the 
formal definitions, in order that he may clearly apprehend its 
meaning, and that unnecessary obstacles may be removed. 

3. Copious blackboard illustrations and examples 
should always accompany the lessons, especially giving judicious 



Vlll SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

classifications of principles, divisions, and distinctions of the 
several subjects of study, and showing the relations of parts to 
each other. 

Generally, there are three stages in every recitation : 

(1.) Brief review of the preceding lesson, (if related to 
the current one,) tracing its connection and bearing. 

(2.) Hecitation and thorough discussion of the lesson 
of the day, the teacher at first eliciting any additional thoughts 
or illustrations the pupils have to give, and then enlarging as 
the case demands, until it is thoroughly comprehended. The 
teacher should not be contented with the simple fact that the pupil 
has recited a lesson verbatim ; but will see to it, also, that he has 
an intelligent notion of what it is designed to teach. 

Lessons should be assigned and explanations given suited rather 
to the least intelligent than to the brightest members of a class, 
and the recitation and instruction should reach the individuals of 
the class so far as may be practicable. 

(3.) Assigning the next day's lesson, as before sug- 
gested. 

This, it will be seen, in some degree goes over each lesson three 
times in three successive days, and should result in its mastery. 

4. Any skillful study of English Grammar must give special 
prominence to practical exercises in composition, ap- 
plying the principles illustrated and enforced in the several lessons. 
The very full and explicit directions for sach exercises 
accompanying each lesson in this manual, will not fail to com- 
mend themselves to the judicious teacher. They should be 
extended as the practical necessities of the class may seem to 
require. 

5. Every teacher using this Manual should also be provided 
with a copy of the Practical Grammar and of the Analysis, 
and should make use of the foot-notes to give further illustra- 
tion and elaboration to subjects that may seem to need it. 

6. It is recommended that the Manual of "Analysis, Pausing, 
and Composition " be taken up in connection with the Grammar y 
in such portions as shall best illustrate and enforce the teachings 
of the several lessons, or aid in their practical application. 



INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. 



Language 9 either spoken or written, is made up of words. 
Each word is the sign of some idea ; and by the proper 
selection and arrangement of words, we are enabled to express 
our ideas in a correct and intelligent manner. 

By careful attention to the meaning and relation of 
words, as they are used in writing or speaking, we find that some 
are employed to express the names of things, others to indi- 
cate their qualities ; some express action or state of some 
person or thing, and others are used in connection with these to 
point out the time, place, manner, degree, etc., of such 
action or state ; some denote certain relations of things to each 
other, and others again chiefly to connect the different parts of a 
sentence to each other. 

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 

Thus, although there are many thousand words in the English 
language, all are classified grammatically into only nine different 
kinds, called Parts of Speech. A word is of one kind or an- 
other, according to its use in a sentence. 

Let us now observe the uses and names of the different 
kinds of words in the following 

Sentence. — "The boy rolled a round stone upon the floor, 
and oh ! how swiftly it did go." 

[*** The teacher will write this sentence on the blackboard.] 

Q. Is there any person named in this sentence ? 

Q. Is there any place named ? 

Q. Is there any thing named ? 

Q. What, then, are the words " boy," " floor," and " stone ? " 

Arts. They are names. 



X CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 

Mention other names : 

Of tilings you can see, 

Of things you can hear, 

Of things you can think of. 

In Grammar, names are called Nouns or Substantives. 

Q. What, then, is a noun f 

Ans. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing (36). 

I'&W^ Exercise the pupil on nouns by asking him to twite a number on the 
slate or blackboard ; also by giving him sentences in which they occur, and 
requiring him to point them out. For Exercises see pages 6 and 7. Do 
the same with thi other JParts of Speech, as they are defined,'] 

Q. What word is before boy in this sentence ? — before round 

stone ? 

Q. Why, then, is "the" put before "boy?" (94.) 
Q. Why is "a" put before " round stone ? " (93.) 
Q. Can you give other nouns and put these little words a or 
the before them ? 

[Let the pupil turn to page 18 (Exercises) and prefix these words, in the 
same way, to the words in the list, beginning with " chair.' 1 ] 

Q. What word instead of a do you put before the word " owl ? " — 

Does this word mean the same &s a? 
Q, Can you tell the difference between a man, and the man ? 

Q. What are these words "the" and "a," and what do they 
show ? Ans. They are Articles, and show the manner in 
which the nouns " boy " and " stone " are used. 

Q. What, then, is an article f 

Ans. An article is a word put before a noun to show the manner 
in which it is used. [Lesson 9.] For Exercises see page 18. 

Q. What word is before "stone?" 

W r hat kind of stone is it ? — Mention other kinds of stones. 

Write twenty other nouns, and put before each of them some 
word to tell the hind. 

[In the Exercises, page 20, let the pupils point out the adjectives.] 

Q. What are these words called that tell what kind of thing? 
(See 102,) 



CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. xi 

Q. What, then, is an adjective ? [Write the definition.] 

Q. In the part of the sentence, " It did go swiftly," what M did 

go?" 
Q. For what, then, is the word " it " used in this sentence ? 
(It is used instead of the noun " stone.") 

Words used instead of nouns are named Pronouns. (12 7) 
Q. W r hat, then, is a pronoun ? [Write the definition.] 
Q. Can you read the sentence " Grive me the pears you bought of 
him ; I want them," and put nouns in the place of the 
words " me," " you," " him," and " them ? " 

Q. Look again at the sentence ; what did the boy do ? 

Q. What is said of the stone ? (Ans. It did go upon the floor.) 

Q. What, then, does the word " rolled " tell us of ? 

Ans. The action of the boy. 

Q. What does " did go" tell us of? 

Ans. The state of the stone after the boy rolled it. 

[For other Exercises, see page 27.] 

W T ords of this kind, such as " rolled " and " did go " are 
named Verbs. [Put the definition on the blackboard.] 

The subject of a verb is that of which the verb tells or 
affirms something. Thus, in the sentence, "boy" <s the sub- 
ject of the verb " rolled," and " it " (standing for stone) is the 
subject of the verb " did go." 
Q. What, then, is a verb ? 

Ans. A verb is a word or words used to express the act, being, or 
state of its subject ; as, I write ; he exists ; time flies. [Ex- 
ercises, p. 88.] 

Take the list of nouns, (page 11, Exercises) and tell something 
of each. Write out the sentences. 
Q. How did the stone go ? 
Q. What does " swiftly " tell us ? 
Ans. The manner in which the stone " did go." 
Q. If you say " the stone did go wry swiftly," what does the 

word " very " do ? 
Ans. It modifies the meaning of the word " swiftly." 



Xll CLASSIFICATION OF WOEDS. 

Q. What would " very " here tell us ? Ans. A circumstance ab®ut 

the motion of the stone. It did go very swiftly. 

Q. If you were to say " a very round stone," what would " very " 

be used for? Ans. To modify the adjective "round." 

Words of this kind, such as " swiftly " and " very " are named 

Adverbs. 

Q. What, then, is an adverb? (See 293.) 
Point out the adverbs on page 78, Exercise II. 

Q. What is the use of the word " upon " in the sentence ? 

Ans. It shows the relation between the " floor " and " rolled." 

Q. If you add to the sentence so that the latter part will read 

"how swiftly it did go under the table," what relation does 

the word "under" show? Ans. The relation of the verb 

" did go " to the noun " table." 

Words of this kind are named Prepositions* ' (303.) 
Q. What, then, is a preposition f 

Q. This sentence has two parts connected by one word. Name 
the parts. Ans. (1) " The boy rolled a round stone upon the 
floor." (2) " Oh ! how swiftly it did go ! " 

Q. What word joins these two parts of the sentence? 

Words that join words and sentences are called Conjunc- 
tions* 

Q. What, then, is a conjunction ? Ans. A conjunction is a word 
which connects words, phrases, or sentences. (311.) 

Q. What is " oh ! " here ? Ans. It is a word expressing surprise 
at seeing the stone rolling. 

Such words are called Interjections. (317.) 

Write five sentences containing interjections. 

Q. How many kinds of words are there in this sentence ? 

Ans. Nine. 
Q. What are they called in English Grammar? 
Ans. They are called Parts of Speech. (31.) 

Q. Can all the words in our language be classed under these nine 
Parts of Speech ? Ans. Yes. 



wm 



CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. Xlll 

Q. What are you going to learn by studying Grammar ? 

Ans. The way to put these Parts of Speech properly together, 
so as to speak and write the English language correctly. 

Note. — Let the teacher take other appropriate sentences and 
go over them in the same way until the pupils can readily tell 
the Parts of Speech in their simplest uses. 

Examples of the Parts of Speech. 

The teacher may now write upon the blackboard a sentence 
with illustrations, similar to the following : 

Carlo was a noble dog ; he swam bravely towards the shore ; but 
alas ! he was drowned. 

1. Noun as, wheat, dogs, etc Carlo (was) 

2. Article a, an, the a 

3. Adjective first, larger, etc noble (dog) 

4. Pronoun I, they, who, etc he 

5. Verb walks, has gone, etc. .swam 

6. Adverb here, largely, etc bravely 

7. Preposition.. . on, from, into, etc towards (the shore) 

8. Conjunction. . and, both, or, etc but 

9. Interjection. . . oh ! ah ! etc alas! (he was drowned) 

[Write upon the blackboard the definition of each of the parts of 
speech, in a series of lessons, and illustrate each fully— the pupil commit- 
ting the definition tJwroughly to memory.] 



After an exercise like the foregoing, it may be profitable to 
build up a sentence, by successive additions of words, to 
illustrate the different parts of speech, and to exercise the 
pupil in discriminating the use of words in simple composition. 

Commence with some noun, as "birds," and by suitable ques- 
tions, let the pupils add successive elements, e.g., What part of 
speech is this ? 



X1Y CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 

State something a bird does or can do. [Sing.] "What part 
of speech is sing f " 

*#* Teacher or pupil writes the sentence, "Birds sing. 1 ' 

Put before it some word to tell the kind of birds. [Question 
as before.] 

How or when, etc., do birds sing ? 

Where do birds sing ? [In the grove.] 

What word joins " grove" to the rest of the sentence, and 
shows relation between them ? 

So proceed to develop a sentence, somewhat as in the preceding 
exercises we discussed Parts of Speech in the one there given. 

Preliminary Definitions. 

The simplest form of language is a word, as a name or sign. 

That for which it stands is called an idea, that is, an image 
or picture of something in the mind, something that the mind 
knows. 

Inverting this order, we have the following : 

An object, or a quality, or the -doing of something, or the man- 
ner, etc., in which something is done, is perceived by the mind. 1 

Such perception or consciousness is called an idea of the 
object, quality, act, manner, etc. 

A spoken or written sign, standing for such idea, is called a 
word* 

When we are conscious of some relation to each other of two 
or more ideas, we are said to think. The operation of the mind 
is called tliouf/ht, and the words when put together are called 
a phrase ; as, Green grass. 

We may affirm — state our opinion or judgment — of two ideas, 
affirming or denying one of the other ; as, Grass is green. — Ice is 
not cold. The expression of such judgment is called a proposi- 
tion, and the words taken together make a sentence** 

Anal.— ' 28. 2 30. 



CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. XV 

A word is the sign of an idea; as, book, sweet, write. 

A phrase is the simplest expression of a thought not af- 
firmed. (335.) 

A proposition is a single statement or affirmation. (332.) 

A sentence is the expression of a proposition. (333.) 

A clause is a dependent part of a sentence, containing a 
subject and a verb. (334:.) 

*** Any expression containing the verb in any of its moods, 
is a clause or a sentence, and tw£ # phrase. 

Sentences. 

Every sentence consists of two parts, the subject and the 
predicate. (340-349.) 

The subject is the word or words standing for that of which 
we speak. 

The predicate is the statement or affirmation which we 
make of the subject. 

The following are examples: 

Subject. Predicate. 
Birds . . . sing. 
Sugar ... is sweet. 
The bad boy . . . tore his book. 
The lame man . . . limps on his lame leg. 
The boy who studies . . . will improve rapidly. 
The fear of the Lord ... is the beginning of wisdom. 
The stars which we see at night. . .disappear when the sun rises. 

Note. — Pupils should be thoroughly exercised in distinguishing 
between the subject and the predicate, until they can readily 
name each in any sentence whose meaning they can understand. 
All that is not subject is predicate, and all that is not predicate 
is subject. 

The very first step in the analysis of sentences is to inculcate 
the necessity of separating every sentence into two parts — that 



XVI CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 

of which the statement or affirmation is made, and that which is 
said of it. 

1. The substantive in the subject '(nominative case) is of 
itself often insufficient, and the fitness of the predicate is fre- 
quently determined by the limiting words ; as, 

A generous man will be honored. 

A selfish man. . . .will be despised. \ 

2. Similarly, although the verb is the principal word in the 
predicate, it may be so modified by other words, that, with the 
same verb, the sense of the predicate shall be essentially 
changed : 

(1.) By an adverb; as, 

The man. . . .walked slowly. 
The man walked rapidly, 

(2.) By an objective; as, 

He wore a hat. 

He wore a cap. 

(3.) By an attribute; as, 

It tastes sweet. 

It tastes sour. 

8. With the same verb, the predication of different sub- 
jects may be satisfied by a change of the subordinate 
words. 

Our friends treat us with kindness. 

Our enemies treat us with contempt. 

*#* For further discussion and exercises, see "Analysis." 

Note to Teachers— The preceding exercises are intended 
only as suggestions for oral lessons, which the skillful teacher 
will extend or modify at pleasure. The pupil should not have 
any part of this Introduction assigned as a task to be com- 
mitted to memory : the text in the " Lessons " furnishes ample 
material for that, after the principles it embodies have been care- 
fully set before the mind of the learner. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



[References. — The figures enclosed in parentheses in the text 
refer to the sections in this grammar. The foot-notes, correspond- 
ing with the small index figures in the text, refer to the sections 
of the Analytical and Practical English Grammar (A & P. Gfr.), 
and to the Manual on Analysis, Parsing, and Composition (Anal.), 
belonging to this series.] 



LESSON 1.— Definition and Division. 

[Commit ^Definitions and 'Rules accurately to memory'.] 

1. Language is the means by winch we express 
our thoughts. 

2. The expression of our thoughts by sounds is Spoken 
Language ; the expression of them by letters (7) is Writ" 
ten Language (12), or Printed Language (IS). 

3. English Grammar is the art of speaking 
and writing the English Language with propriety. 

4. It is divided into four parts ; namely, Orthography, 
Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

o. Orthography treats of letters (6); Etymol- 
ogy of words (27)', Syntax of sentences (331) ; and 
Prosody of elocution and versification (610). 

QZ r JESTIONS.— What is Lacguage ? What is Spoken Language ? 

Written ? What is English Grammar ? Into how many parts is it 
divided? Mention them. What does Orthography treat of ? Etymol- 
ogy? Syntax? Prosody? 



LETTERS AND SYLLABLES 



PART FIRST-— ORTHOGRAPHY. 

LESSON 2.— Letters and Syllables. 

6* Orthography treats of letters and the proper 
mode of combining them into syllables and words. 

7. A letter is a mark or character used in forming a 
word, and denotes a sound of the human voice, as b-a-d bad, 
g-o go, p-u-p-i-1 pupil. 

8. Some letters represent several sounds, as a in able, cedar, 
fall, mat ; c in cedar, call. 

9. Sometimes ttvo or more letters are used to represent a 
sound, as ch in c/ald, ough in though, sh in finish. 

10. When a letter in a word is not used in pronunciation, it 
is called a silent letter, as h in Z^our, e in peace. 

11. There are about forty Elementary Sounds in the 
English Language, represented in writing or in print by twenty- 
six letters called the Alphabet : 

12. '9$fc&en 3!eMeU. ^cfotoJ. 

C ffi[Men Jz!e^e id. o/?na<&t. 



13. ROMAN LETTERS.— CAPITALS. 
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ. 

Roman Letters. — Small, 
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

ITALIC LETTERS.— CAPITALS. 
ABC D E FG HIJKL M JSf PQBSTUVWXYZ. 

Italic Letters. — Small. . 
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 

Remarks. — Italic letters are generally used for emphasis. 



LETTEES AKB SYLLABLES. 3 

14:. Letters are either Votvels or Consonants. 

15. A Voivel makes a free, full sound of itself. 

16. A Consonant can not be fully sounded without a vowel. 

17. The Votvels are a e i o u; also, te> and ?/, not before 
another vowel sounded in the same syllable, as in law, boy. 

18. All the other letters are Consonants; also, tv and y 
before a vowel sounded in the same syllable, as in war, youth. 

19. A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound, 
as ou in out, oi in oil. 

20. A Triphthong is the union of three vowels in one 
sound, as eau in beauty. 

21. A Syllable is a distinct sound, uttered by one impulse 
of the voice, and represented by one or more letters, as farm, 
ea-gle, a-e-ri-al. 

22. A word of one syllable is a Monosyllable, as man. 

23. A word of two syllables is a Dissyllable, as man-ly. 
24:. A word of three syllables is a Trisyllable, as man-li-ness. 

25. A word of four or more syllables is a Polysyllable, 
as Em-i-gra-tion, In-sub-or-di-na-tion. 

26. Spelling is the art of expressing ivords by 
their proper letters. 1 

QUESTIONS.- -What is Orthography? What is a Letter? When 
is a Letter called silent ? How many Elementary Sounds are there in Eng- 
lish ? How many Letters are there ? How are they divided ? What 
is a Vowel ?— a Consonant ? Name the Vowels. When are w and y 
vowels ? When Consonants ? What is a Diphthong ? A Triphthong ? 
What is a Syllable ? What is a Word of one Syllable called ? Of two ? 
Of three ? Of four or more ? What is Spelling ? 



Note to Teachers.— Before a new lesson is assigned to the class, its sub- 
ject-matter should be carefully exemplified by oral exercises, familiar 
questions, and blackboard illustrations, so that its scope may be fully 
apprehended — not for the purpose of relieving the pupil of his labor, but of 
making it possible for him to perform it understandingly. Use additional 
questions as they may suggest themselves ; and in the reviews, let the pupil 
recite topically without questions. 

Anal. & Practical Grammar— 1 51-76. 



4 PARTS OF SPEECH. 

PART SECOND.— ETYMOLOGY 

LESSON 3. — Division of Words. 

27? Etymology treats of the classes of 

words, and of the changes of the form of words, 
by inflection and by derivation. 

28. Til flection is the change of form or termination which 
a word undergoes to express the different relations of person, 
gender, number, case, comparison, voice, mood, tense, etc. ; as, 

He sees great men ; a greater m&n saw him. 

29. Derivation is the change in a word from its simple 
primitive word ; 2 thus, man^, maxihood, mankind are derived 
from ''man" 

SO. Words, in respect to their meaning and use, are di- 
vided into nine classes, called 

FARTS OF SPEECH. 

31. The names of the parts of speech in our 

language are Noun, Article, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, 
Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, and Interjection. 

32. Of these, the Noun, Pronoun, and Verb and some 
Adjectives and Adverbs are inflected (111, 296), 

33. In grammar, the inflection of Nouns, Pronouns, and 
Verbs is usually treated of as "Accidents" (45, 132, 202). 

34. Parsing is the taking of the words of a sen- 
tence separately to tell to what class each belongs, 
and then describing it (324). 



35. Illustration. — " The lad boy strikes John" is a sentence. 
Each of these words is a part of speech,, and holds a certain 
relation to other words in the sentence. We parse these words 
when we tell what parts of speech they are and describe them. 
Thus, the is an article and belongs to boy ; bad is an adjective 

Analysis, Parsing & Composition, — " 225-242. 



^™ 



kouns. 5 

qualifying or describing hoy ; toy is a common noun, and is the 
subject of strikes ; strikes is a verb, and tells what the boy does. 
John is a noun, and is the object of the verb strikes. 

QUESTIONS.— What does Etymology treat of? What is Inflection ? 
What is Derivation ? What are the nine classes of Words called ? Name 
them. Which are inflected ? Under what other name is the Inflection 
of Words treated of ? What is Parsing ? What does etc. (28) mean ? 



LESSON 4. -Nouns. 

\jReview the two preceding Lessons > and answer the questions.] 

36. A Noun is the name of any person, place, or 
thing ; as, John, London, book. 

37. Nouns are either Common or Proper. 

38. A Common Noun is a name applied to all 
things of the same sort ; as, boy, city, river. 

39. A Proper Noun is the name applied to an 
individual person or thing only ; as, John, London, 
the Ohio. 

40. A Noun is also called a Substantive. 

41. A Substantive is a noun, or any word or part of a sen- 
tence used as a noun. 

Thus : The man has gone. He reads. To read well requires 
much practice. That industry leads to success needs no proof. 
These substantives are subjects of the several verbs "has gone/' 
"reads," "requires," "needs." (See Lesson 39.) 



,42. Illustration. — 1. Every thing of which a person can 
speak, hear, or think, has a name ; that name in grammar is called 
&noim. Names common to all things ~0f the same sort or class, are 
called Common nouns; as, man, woman, day, river, city. 
2. Names applied only to individuals of a sort or class, and 
not common to all, are called ~Proper nouns ; as, John, Fri- 
day, Thames, London. Common nouns, then, distinguish sorts or 



6 kouns. 

classes ; Proper nouns distinguish individuals. Thus, the noun 
"Man " is the name of a class or species, and is applied equally to 
all, or is common to all the individuals in that class. But "John " 
is a name that belongs only to certain individuals of that class, 
and not to others ; it is therefore not Common but Proper. 

3. A word that makes sense after an article {91), or the 
phrase speak of, is a noun ; as, A man; I speak of money. 

Observatiojis. 

43* Common nouns are divided into several classes, such as 

1. Class nattiest ; as, book, scholar. 

2. Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude ; as, people. 

3. Names of materials ; as, iron. 

4. Names of measures ; as, foot, yard. 

1 1. Names of qualities ; as, goodness. 

5. Abstract ) 2. Names of actions ; as, flight. 

( 3. Names of states ; as, sleep. 
44* Names of actions derived from verbs, are sometimes 
called verbal nouns ; as, reading, writing, etc. 

43. The Accidents of nouns are Person, Gender, 
Number, and Case. (33 9 28.) [Appendix IV, 1.] 

Note. — These Accidents belong also to personal and relative 
pronouns (132). 

Q VESTIO WS.— What is a noun ? How many kinds of nouns are there ? 
What is a common noun ? What is a proper noun ? What part of speech 
are names of things ? What is a collective noun ?— an abstract noun ?— a 
verbal noun ? Are these nouns proper or common ? What Accidents 
belong to nouns ? 

EXERCISES. 

[Point out the nouns in the following sentences ; say why they are nouns. 
Tell whether they are propter or common, and why. Exercises of this 
kind may be taken from any book.] 

The table and chairs in this room belong to Eobert. The 

houses and streets in New York are larger than those in Albany. 

The principal cities in the State of New York, are New York, 

Brooklyn, Albany, Rochester, and Buffalo. Wheat, corn, rye, 

and oats, are extensively cultivated. Apples, pears, cherries, 



PERSON. 7 

plums, and other fruits abound. George is older than John ; 

they both study arithmetic and grammar. No man can serve 

two masters.- Knowledge is the treasure of the mind. The 

proof of the pudding is in the eating. Use soft words and 

hard arguments. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb. . 

[Write a list of all the nouns in your reading lesson. 

Write additional sentences, taking care in all instances to begin the 
proper nouns with a capital letter. (!£.)] 



LESSON 5. -Person. 

{^Review the three preceding Zessons, and a?iswer the questions^ 

46. Person, in grammar, denotes the distinction of 
a noun or pronoun to denote the speaker, the person or 
thing spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. 

47. The persons are three, First, Second, and Third. 

48. A noun or a pronoun is in the first person, 
when it denotes the speaker or writer ; as, 

" I Paid have written it " — " We are ready to go." 

49. A noun or a pronoun is in the second person, 
when it denotes something spoken to; as, 

" Thou, God, seest me " — " You may go, boys" 

50. A noun or a pronoun is in the third person, 
when it denotes something spoken of; as, 

" Truth is mighty " — " The dog followed me." 

31. The first and second persons can belong only to nouns 
denoting individuals, or things regarded as individuals, because 
such only can speak or be spoken to. The third person may 
belong to all nouns, because every individual or object may be 

spoken of. 

♦ 

32. Illustration. — Person makes no change either in the 
meaning or the form of a noun, but simply denotes the manner 



8 GEXDER. 

in wliicli it is used. Moreover, as the name of the speaker 
or of the person spoken to, is seldom expressed (the pronoun / or 
thou being used in its stead), a noun is very rarely in either 
the first or the second person. 1 

EXERCISES. 

[In the following exercises point out the nouns and pronouns (126), and 
' tell their persons.] 

The teacher said to Jane, I am pleased with your progress. 

Thou art the man. 1 John, where are you going? Mary, 

does James study grammar ? We, the people of the State, do 

ordain. Go along, Joseph. The earth is a round ball. 

Earth and sky ! how beautiful ye are. Man is the servant of 

God. Hence ! home ! ye idle creatures ! Gazing upon the 

same moon that smiles for you, the Indian lover wooed his mate. 

QUESTIONS.— What does person denote? How many persons are 
there ? When is a noun in the first person ? When in the second ? 
When in the third ? To what sort of nouns do the first and the second 
persons belong ? Why ? To what does the third belong ? Why ? Does 
person make any difference in the meaning or the form of the noun ? What 
then does it denote ? Is the name of the speaker, or the person spoken to, 
often mentioned ? What words are used instead of them ? 



LESSON 6-Gender. 

{^Review the two p?*ecedin t (/ Lessons, andans?t>e?*lhe questions.} 

53. Gender is the distinction of nouns and pro- 
nouns with regard to Sex. There are three gen- 
ders, the Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. 

34. Nouns and pronouns denoting males are 31as- 
culine ; as, man, hoy — Icing, lion — I— lie. 

55. Nouns and pronouns denoting females are 
Feminine ; as, woman, c/irl, — queen, lioness,— I — she. 

56* Nouns and pronouns denoting -wesY/ier males 
nor females are Neuter / as, boo/cs, houses, it. 

A. & P. Gr— * 119, 120. 



GEOTER. 



57 • The masculine and feminine genders of nouns 
are distinguished in three ways — 

1. By different corresponding tvords ; as, 



Masculine. Feminine. 
Bachelor maid 



Beau 

Boy 

Brother 

Buck 

Bull 

Colt 

Drake 

Earl 

Father 

Friar 

Gander 



belle 

girl 

sister 

doe 

cow 

filly 

duck 

countess 

mother 



Masculine. Feminine. 
Gentleman lady 

Hart roe 

Horse mare 

Husband wife 

He she 

King queen 

Jupiter Juno 

Man woman 

Lad lass 

Lord lady 

Master mistress 

Nephew niece 



Masculine. 

Papa 

Ram, buck 

Samuel 

Sir 

Son 

Stag 

Sloven 

Steer 

Swain 

Uncle 

Wizard 

Youth 



Feminine. 

mamma 

ewe 

Sarah 

madam 

daughter 

hind 

slattern 

heifer 

nymph 

aunt 

witch 

maiden 



*** Some words of this class are compounded by prefixing 
another distinguishing word ; as, 

Masculine. Feminine. Masculine. Feminine. 

Landlord landlady Stepson stepdaughter 

Schoolmaster schoolmistress Ve&cock pe&hen 
Qmndfather gamdmotJier 

2. By a difference of termination ; as, 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Abbot 


abbess 


Duke 


duchess 


Actor 


actress 


Emperor 


empress 


Administrator 


administratrix 


Enchanter 


enchantress 


Ambassador 


ambassadress 


Executor 


executrix 


Arbiter 


arbi tress 


Governor 


governess 


Author 


authoress 


Heir 


heiress 


Augustus 


Augusta 


Hero 


heroine 


Baron 


baroness 


Host 


hostess 


Benefactor 


benefactress 


Jew 


Jewess 


Bridegroom 


bride 


Lion 


lioness 


Count 


countess 


Marquis 


marchioness 


Deacon 


deaconess 


Mayor 


mayoress 



10 


GENDER. 




Masculine. 


Feminine. Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Negro 


Negress Songster 


songstress 


Patron 


patroness Sorcerer 


sorceress 


Peer 


peeress Sultan 


sultana 


Poet 


poetess Tiger 


tigress 


Priest 


priestess Traitor 


traitoress 


Prince 


princess Tutor 


tutoress 


Prophet 


prophetess Votary- 


votaress 


Shepherd 


shepherdess Widower 


widow 


3. By a 


distinguishing ivovd prefixed ; as, 




Masculine. Feminine. 


Sparrow 


Cock sparrow Hen 


sparrow 


Goat 


He goat She 


goat 


Servant 


Man servant Maid servant 


Child 


Male child Female child 


Descendants 


Male descendants Female descendants 


Wilson 


Mr. Wilson Mrs. 


Wilson 




Master Wilson Miss Wilson 



Observations. 

58. Some nouns denote either a male or a female ; as 'parent, 
servant, neighbor. Such are said to be of the common gender. 

59. Some masculinejiouns have no corresponding fem- 
inine ; as, baker, brewer ; and some feminine nouns have no 
corresponding "masculine ; as, laundress, seamstress. 

00. Some nouns, generally of the neuter gender, have mas- 
culine or feminine pronouns when per sonified ; that is, when 
the thing they represent is considered to have life ; as. 

" The sun is bright, but how does lie make the day ?" 
" The ship was admired as she sailed past." l 

01. The names of animals of inferior size, or whose sex is not 
known, are often considered neuter, and are followed by the 
neuter pronoun ; as, " The cat caught a mouse and ate it." 

QUESTIONS.— What is gender? How many genders are there? 
What nouns are said to be masculine? What, feminine? What, 
neuter ? How are the masculine and feminine genders of nouns distin- 

A. & P. Gi\— l 130, 1046. 



DUMBER. 11 

guished ? When a noun denotes either a male or a female, of what gender 
is it sometimes said to be ? Name some nouns that have no corresponding 
gender. When is a noun, generally neuter, personified ? The names of 

what animals are often considered of the neuter gender ? 

EXERCISES. 

[1. In the preceding lists, tell the feminine of each masculine 'noun, and the 
masculine of each feminine. Tell the gender of each noun and pronoun in 
the exercises. Lessons 4 and 5. 

2. Tell the part of speech and gender of the following words ; thus, house, 
a noun, neuter ; boy, a noun, masculine, etc.] 

House, boy, stone, boot, cow, father, mother, sister, brother, 
daughter, aunt, nephew, niece, uncle, shepherd, paper, pen, ink, 
parent, neighbor, friend, lion, widow, baron, negro, hero, horse, 
tree, bird, mouse, fly, landlord, bride, songster, madam, etc. 



LESSON 7. -Number. 

{Review the three preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 

62. Number is that property of a noun by which 
it expresses one, or more than one. 

63. Nouns have two numbers, the Singular and 
the Plural The Singular denotes one; as, hook, 
tree, man; the Plural, more than one; as, boohs, 
trees, men. 

64. The Plural is commonly formed by adding s 
to the singular ; as, singular booh, plural boohs. 

Special Rules. 
65* Rule 1. Nouns ending in s, sh, ch soft, z 9 m, or o, 
form the plural by adding es ; as, Miss, Misses ; brush, brushes; 
match, matches ; topaz, topazes ; fox, foxes ; hero, heroes. 

66, Exceptions. — Nouns ending in eo, io 9 and yo, and in 
ch sounding A* ? add s only ; as, cameo, cameos ; folio, folios ; 
monarch, monarchs. Also canto has cantos ; but other nouns in 
© after a consonant now commonly add es ; as, grotto y 
grottoes ; tyro, tyroes, etc. 



12 



KUMBER. 



67* Rule 2. (1) Nouns ending in y after a consonant, change 
y into ies in the plural ; as, Lady, ladies. 

(2) Nouns ending in y after a vowel, follow the general 
rule ; as, Day, days. 

(3) Also, all proper nouns ending in y ; as, the Pompeys; 
the Tullys. 

68. Rule 3. Nouns ending in /or fe, change / or fe into 
ves in the plural ; as, Loaf, loaves ; life, lives. 

09. Exception. — But dwarf, scarf; brief, chief, grief; kerchief, 
handkerchief, mischief; gulf, turf, surf; fife, strife; proof, hoof, 
roof, reproof, follow the general rule. Also nouns in ff have their 
plural in s ; as, muff, muffs ; staff has sometimes staves. 

Remark. — Letters, marks, and figures are made plural 
by adding 's; as, "Dot your i's and cross your Vs. Your s's are 
not well made. The +'s are between the 6's and Ts, and the 
— y s between the 4's and 5 V , 



Observations. 1 

70. Some nouns form the plural irregularly. They are 
the following : — 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Man men Tooth teeth 

Woman women Goose geese 

Child children Mouse mice 

Foot feet 

Ox oxen 

Singular. 
Brother (one of the same family) 
Brother (one of the same society) 
Sow or swine 
Die (for gaming) 
Die (for coining) 
Most compound words pluralize the first part, as, 
Aid-de-camp aids-de-camp 

Court-martial courts-martial 

Cousin-german cousins-german 

Father-in-law, etc. fathers-in-law, etc. 



Penny (a coin) pennies 
Penny (a value) pence 
Plural. 

brothers 

brethren 

sows or swine 

dice 

dies 



A. & P. Gr.—*15»-J60. 



srasBEB. 13 

71. Words from foreign languages sometimes retain 
their original plural. As a general rule, nouns in um or on 
have a in the plural ; but is, in the singular, is changed into es ; 
eoc and ix 9 into ices ; as into i ; x as, 

.Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 

Apax apices Crisis crises 

Automaton automata Magus magi 

Axis axes Mr. Messrs. 

72. Proper names have the plural, only when they refer 
to a race or family ; as, the Stewarts ; or to several persons 
of the same name ; as, the twelve Caisars. 2 

73. Names of metals, virtues, vices, and things 
weighed or measured, are mostly singular ; as, gold, 
meekness, temperance, milk. 

74:. Some nouns are plural only • as, annals, bellows. 

75. Some nouns are alike in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, 
trout. 

76. Some nouns are plural in form ; but in construction, either 
singular or plural ; as, amends, means, news, riches, pains ; 
and the names of sciences ; as, mathematics, ethics, etc. 

77. Some nouns are used in the singular form to denote a 
quantity or class of objects, as two hundred, the horse is useful to 
mankind. (99.)* 

QUESTIONS.— What is meant by number ? Hotv many numbers have 
nouns ? What does the singular denote ?— the plural ? How is the plural 
commonly formed ? When is the plural formed by adding es ? How do 
nouns ending in y after a consonant, form the plural ?— after a vowel ?— 
nouns ending in / or fe ? Proper nouns ? When have proper nouns a 

plural ? What nouns are mostly singular ? Mention some nouns that are 
plural only. Some that are alike in both numbers. Some that are plural 
in form, but either singular or plural in construction. When is the article 
a or an not used ? 

EXERCISES. "" 

[1. Put the following words in the plural, and give the rule for forming 
it; thus, "Chair, plural Chairs." Rule, m The plural is commonly formed," 
etc. (04); ''Fox, plural foxes.''' Rule, " Nouns in s, sh," etc. (65).] 

A. & P. Gr.— x 154. 2 161. 3 709. 



14 CASES OF KOUKS. 

Chair, fox, table, cat, dog, horse, house, hand, finger, arm, boy, 
girl ; dish, church, box, miss, sky, body, key, day, toy, leaf, knife, 
wife, loaf. An apple (96), a pear, a cherry, a bush, a church, a 
bell. 

[2. Write the singular of the following plurals :] 

Flies, boxes, leaves, brushes, knives, marshes, bays, tables, 
bushes, trees, dogs, ducks, geese, wives, duties, churches, matches, 
mice, days, keys, staves, horses, mules, cows, sheep, goats, etc. 

[3. Tell the plural of the following irregular nouns:] 

Man, woman, child, ox, tooth, foot, goose, penny, mouse ; father- 
in-law, mother-in-law, court-martial, fisherman, washerwoman, 
cousin-german, etc. 

[4. Tell the gender and the number of the following nouns : give the 
plural and the rule for forming it ; thus, " House," a noun, neuter, singu- 
lar ; plural, " houses." " The plural is commonly formed," etc.] 

House, boy, stone, boat, father, king, knife, aunt, emperor, 
governess, pen, lioness, baron, sister, brother, lord, box, bush, rush, 
goose, bachelor, doe, bride, fly, loaf, study, coach, toy, mouth, 
watch, hero, church, tree, way, wife, half, fish, table, mother, 
apple, cherry, star, sun, moon, planet, earth, sky, mountain, 
river, sea, etc. 

[5. Write short sentences, each containing at least one of the nouns in 
the preceding list.] 



LESSON 8.— Cases of Nouns. 

{^Review the three preceding Lessons > and answer the questions .] 

78. Case is the state or condition of a noun 
with respect to the other words in a sentence. 

79. Nouns have three cases; the Nominative, 
Possessive, and Objective. 

80. The Nominative case commonly expresses 
that of which something is said, or declared ; 1 as, 

The sun shines. He is a scholar. 

Anal.— 1 14,5, 146. A. & P. Gr.— 1 164. 



CASES OF KOUKS. 15 

81. The Possessive case denotes that to which 
something belongs ; 1 as, The lady's fan. (479.) 

82* The Objective case denotes the object of some 
action or relation : 2 as, James assists Thomas ; they liye 
in Albany. 

83. The nominative and objective cases of nouns are 
alike in form. 

84. The possessive singular is formed by adding an 
apostroplie (') and s 9 to the nominative ; as John's book. 

85. When the plural ends in s, the possessive is formed by 
adding an apostrophe only ; as, Ladies' hats. 

Inflection of Nouns. 

86. Nouns are thus declined : 

Singular. Plural. Singular. 

JSTom. Lady Ladies John 

Poss. Lady's Ladies' John's 

Obj. Lady Ladies John 

87 • Proper names generally have no plural. 

Parsing of the Noun. 

88. A noun is parsed etymologictilly ', by tell- 
ing its gender, number, and case ; thus, " The lady's fan 
is lost/ 5 

Lady's, a noun, feminine, in the possessive singular. 

Observations. 

89. When the nominative singular ends in ss 9 or letters of a 
similar sound, the s after the apostrophe is sometimes omitted, in 
order to avoid too close a succession of hissing sounds ; as, " for 
goodness' sake ; '\ " for conscience' sake." This however is seldom 
done, unless the word following begins with s ; thus we do not 
say " the prince' feather," but the " prince's feather." 

Note. — A noiin in the possessive case limits the noun to which it is joined. 

90. The objective case, with of before it, following 
another noun, is generally equivalent to the jyossessive ; thus, 

Anal.— 1 149. A. & P. Gr.— 1 165. a 166. 



16 THE ARTICLE. 

" tlie rage of the tyrant " and " the tyrant's rage " mean the 
same thing. Sometimes, however, the meaning will be different. 1 

Q U-ESTIOJYS.—WhsLt is case ? How many cases have nouns ? What 
doe3 the nominative cas^ express ?— the possessive ? — the objective ? What 
two cases are alike ? How is the possessive singular formed?— the posses- 
sive plural ? 

EXERCISES. 
Gender, Number, and Case. 

[Parse the following nouns by telling their gender, number and case ; thus, 
"Father" a noun, masculine, in the nominative singular.* 

Father, mother, sister's husband, brother's wife, uncle's house, 
Tom's books, city, virtue's reward, brother's widow, Washington 
the hero, the statesman, the father of his country ; carpenter, 
farmer , lawyer's fees, teacher's manual, scholar's assistant, ladies' 
gloves ; beans, peas, plums, cherries, houses. The farmer plants 
potatoes in his field. Flowers grow in the garden. 

\ltevien> the whole thoroughly from the beginning, answering 
accurately all the questions.] 



LESSON 9 .-The Article. 

91. An Article is a word put before a noun, to 
show the manner in which it is used. 

92. There are two articles, a or an, and the. 

93. A or an is called the Indefinite Article, 
because it shows that its noun is used indefinitely, 

A. & P. Gr.— 1 176. 

* In using the above exercises, it will save much time, which is all import- 
ant, if the pupil be taught to say every thing belonging to the noun in the 
fewest words possible ; and always in the same order as above. For the same 
reason, the distinction of nouns into proper and common may be omitted. 
And as person has nothing to do with the form of a noun, but only with its 
use, and as nouns are almost always of the third person, the mention of per- 
son may be omitted, unless the noun is in the first or the second person. It 
will also be a profitable exercise for him to assign a reason for every part of 
his description ; thus, Father, a noun, because the name of an object ; mascu* 
line, because it denotes the male sex ; singular, became it denotes but one ; 
plural, fathers. Rule, " The plural is commonly formed by adding s to the 
singular." 



THE ARTICLE. 17 

and not limited to a particular person or thing ; as, a 
king, an eagle, meaning any icing, any eagle. 

94* The is called the Definite Article, because it 
shows that its noun is used definitely, and refers to 
a particular person or thing ; as, the king, meaning some 
particular king, known or described. [Appendix IV, 2.] 

Observations. 

95* A is used before a consonant ; a house, a ripe apple. 
Also before words beginning with u long, and eu 9 because they 
sound as if beginning with the consonant y : thus, A unit, a use, 
a eulogy, — pronounced as if written, a yunit, a yuse, a y eulogy. 

90. Instead of a, an is used before an adjective or noun, 
beginning with a voivel or a silent h ; as, an aged man, an 
acorn, an hour. 

97. A or an is used before the singular number only ; 
the, before either the singular or the plural, 

98. Generally, a noun without an article is taken in its 
widest sense, as, Man is mortal, meaning All mankind : Or, in 
in an indefinite sense ; as, There are men destitute of all shame, 
meaning some men. 

.9,9. The is sometimes put before a noun denoting the 
species ; 1 as, the oak ; the lion. 

100. When an article and adjective are used with a noun, 
the article generally stands before the adjective ; as, a large eagle, 
the tame lion. 

Pausing op the Article. 

101. The article is parsed by stating whether it is 
definite or indefinite, and mentioning the noun 
to which it belongs ; thus, 

A book. A is an article, indefinite, and belongs to " book" 

QUESTIONS— What is an article? How many articles are there? 
What is A or An called ? Why ? What is The called ? Why? What 
is A used before ? What is An used before ? In what sense is a noun 
without an article taken ? How is the article parsed ? 

A. & P. Gi\— x 709. 



18 THE ADJECTIVE. 

MXEMGIBEJ3. 

Is it proper to say a man, or an man ? and why ? 

a apple, or an apple ? and why ? 

a house, or an house ? and why ? 

a hour, or an hour ? and why ? 

[Prefix the indefinite article in the proper form to the following words :] 
Chair, table, horse, cart, book, house, garden, bird, owl, egg, 
ear, eye, tree, cow, unit, use, old man, young man, word, book, 
pot, bench, open wagon, round stone, old hat, penny trumpet, ice 
house, house, honor, hopeful boy, honest man. 1 

[Correct the Errors in the following examples, and give a reason for 
the change ; parse the articles : 

An cup, an door, a apple, an pear, an hat, an wig, an eulogy, a 
honor, an crow, a ostrich, an pen, a ugly beast, an pretty beast, an 
pretty thing, an huge monster, a upper room, a ice house, an nice 
house, an humorous poem, a open wagon, an hard nuty a industri- 
ous boy, a honest man. The mankind are divided into the 
different races. Farmers live in a country. The lions roam in a 
forest. 

[Write the singular of the plural nouns (Ex. 2, page 14), and prefix the 
indefinite article.] 



LESS ON 1 0.— The Adjective. 

102. An Adjective is a word used to qualify a 
substantive ; as, A good boy ; a square box ; ten dollars. 
He is poor. To lie is base. That I said so is true. 
*** For the word Substantive, see Lesson 4. 

103. Adjectives may be classified as follows : 

1 04. I. Common adjectives, denoting quality ; as, good, 
large, sweet, etc. 

105. II. Numeral adjectives, denoting quantity and 
number. Of these there are four kinds : 



A. & P. Gr.- 1 187. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 19 

1. Definite numerals, denoting some exact number; as, six 
dollars, the eighth page. These are distinguished as 

{a) Cardinal, which indicate how many ; as, one, two. 
These are sometimes written in. figures ; thus, 1, 2, 3, 4. 

(b) Ordinal, which indicate which one of a number; as, first, 
second, etc. Sometimes written, 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, etc. 

2. Indefinite numerals are such as do not denote any exact 
number ; as, few, many, several. 

3. Distributive numerals point out a number of objects in- 
dividually ; as, each, every, either, neither. These are also called 
indefinite pronouns. (See 17 1») 

4. Those denoting quantity as applied to materials; as, 
much, little, some, any. 

106 > ILL Circumstantial adjectives express some con- 
dition of time, place, nation, etc. ; as, daily bread, Eastern clime, 
American continent. 

Under this head may be included proper adjectives derived 
from nouns ; as, Roman, Grecian, Napoleonic. 

107> IV. Participial adjectives, consisting of participles 
or compounds of participles used as adjectives ; as, an amusing 
story, unmerited rebuke. [See Appendix IV, 3.] 

108* Illustrations. — The name of a thing, mentioned with- 
out qualification, brings before the mind only the idea of the 
thing itself. Thus, the word " horse/' for example, may stand for 
any horse. But if we wish to describe or point out a particular 
horse more definitely, and to distinguish it from others of the 
same species, we qualify the term ; * i. e., we connect with the 
name or noun a word denoting some pjroperty, or quality, or cir- 
cumstance by which it may be known or distinguished ; as, " a 
little horse; " "an old horse ;" "a black horse ; " " an American 
horse/' etc. Words used for this purpose are called .Adjectives* 
Sometimes -several of these may be joined with the same noun ; 
as, when we say, " a little old black horse ; " " a smooth tchite 
round stone ; " " the good old way." 

*j.*In any phrase or sentence, the adjective qualifying a noun 
may generally be found by prefixing the expression, n What " or 
" What kind of," to the noun in the form of a question ; as, What 

A. & P. Gr. * 196, 



20 THE ADJECTIVE. 

kind of a horse ? What kind of a stone ? What kind of a way ? 
The word containing the answer to the question is an adjective. 

Observations* 

109. Other parts of speech, when used to qualify or 
limit a noun, or pronoun, perform the part of adjectives, and 

. should be parsed as such ; as, A gold ring, a he bear, the then 
king, the above remark, etc. Sometimes an entire "phrase or 
demise performs the office of an adjective ; as, " The love of 
money." What love ? " The boy who studies" What kind of boy ? 

110. Adjectives are often used as nouns ; as, "God re- 
wards the good, and punishes the bad." " The virtuous are the 
most happy." Adjectives thus used are plural: they denote more 
than one. 

QUESTIONS.— What is an adjective? What are adjectives denot- 
ing number called ? What is a numeral adjective ? How many classes 
of numeral adjectives are there ? What are the cardinal numbers ? What, 
do they express ? What are the ordinal numbers ? What do they ex- 
press ? When do nouns or other parts of speech become adjectives ? 
Are adjectives ever used as nouns ? Of what number are they considered ? 

EXEBGISES. 

[1. In the following exercise, let the pupil first point out the nouns, and 
then the adjectives ; and tell how he knows them to be so.] 

A round table, a pretty dog, a little mouse, a low chair, a small 
book, a sharp knife, white paper, dirty bo*oks, ugly faces, a beau- 
tiful flower, a rich man, fresh fish, a wild horse, a short man, an 
old hat, a fierce dog, a good pen, a wise king, an honest man, 
tame rabbits, a fine day, a sweet apple, a long stick, a little hand- 
some old woman, a thick square book, a large white cat, a new 
book, a clean white frock, a full cap, an empty mug, a warm 
room, a wet towel, a cold rainy night, a cloudy sky, windy 

weather, hard frost, deep snow. The sky is bright. It tastes 

sweet. Snow is white,- Ice is cold. 

[2. In the above exercises, let the pupil take each noun and prefix to it as 
many adjectives as he can think of., so as to make sense ; as, for example, 
" table," high table, low table, long table, etc., etc., and in reciting put the 
emphasis on the adjective. 

3. Let him take each adjective, and add to it as many nouns as he can think 
of, so as to make sense ; as, " round,*' 1 a round ball, a round hole, a round 
house, a round cake, etc., and put the emphasis on the noun. 

4. Write out these exercises.] 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 21 

LESSON 11 .— Comparison of Adjectives. 

\JRevien> the preceding Wesson _, and answe?* the question$.~\ 

111. Adjectives usually have three forms, called 
degrees of comparison ; the Positive, Compara- 
tive, and Superlative. 

112% The Positive expresses the quality simply ; 
as, John is tall. 

113* The Comparative expresses the quality in 
a higher degree in one object than another ; as, James 
is taller than John. 

114. The Superlative expresses the quality in 
the highest degree in one object compared with two or 
more ; as, Joseph is the tallest of all. 

115. Adjectives of one syllable form the comparative by 
adding er to the positive ; and the superlative, by adding- est ; 
as, sweet, sweeter, sweetest. 

116. Adjectives ending in e silent, drop e before er and est ; l 
as, large, larger, largest. 

117. Adjectives of more than one syllable are com- 
monly compared by prefixing more and most ; as, beautiful, 
more beautiful, most beautiful. 

Rematck. — Some prefer to regard the words more and most as 
adverbs, modifying the adjective. 

118. To these rules there are some exceptions. Adjectives of 
two syllables are sometimes compared by er and est ; as, our ten- 
der est cares ; a happier state ; and adjectives of one syllable are 
sometimes compared by prefixing more and most ; as, more wise, 
most Jit. 2 

119. A lower degree of comparison is expressed by pre- 
fixing less and least to the positive ; as, less beautiful, least 
beautiful. 3 

A. & P. Gr. l 60. n -216. *217. 218. 



22 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 



Observations. 

120. Dissyllables ending in le after a mute, are generally 
compared by ev or est ; as, able, abler, ablest. After a consonant, 
y is changed into i before er and est ; as, dry, drier, driest ; 
happy, happier, happiest ; y with a vowel before it, is not changed ; 

. a ^ gay, gayer, gayest 

121. Some adjectives form the superlative by adding 
most to the end of the word ; as, upper, uppermost. So under- 
most, foremost, hindmost. 

122. When the positive ends in a single consonant preceded 
by a single vowel, the consonant is doubled before er and est; as, 
hot, hotter, hottest. 1 

123. Some adjectives do not admit of compari- 
son, viz. : 

1st. Such as denote number ; as, one, two; third, fourth. 

2d. figure or shape ; as, circular, square. 

3d. c posture, or position ; as, perpendicu- 
lar, horizontal. 
4th. Those of an absolute or superlative signification ; as, 
true, perfect, universal, chief, extreme. 2 



Adjectives compared irregularly. 

124:. Some adjectives are compared irregular 1 y. as follows . 



Positive. 
Good 


Comparative. 
better 


Superlative. 
best 


Bad, evil or ill 


worse 




worst 


Little 


less 




least 


Much or many 
Late 


more 
later 




most 

latest or last 


Near 


nearer 




nearest or next 


Far 


farther 




farthest 


Fore 


former 




foremost or first 


Old 


older or 


elder 


oldest or eldest 



125. 3fuch is used to denote quantity ; as, much corn, much 
money, much mischief; many to denote number; as, many 
men, many dollars. Elder and eldest are applied to persons 
only ; older and oldest, to either persons or things. 

A. & P. Gr. x 00. a 223, 6. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 23 

QUESTIONS. — How many degrees of comparison are there? What 
does the positive denote ? — the comparative ?— the superlative ? How are 
monosyllables compared ?— words of more than one syllable ?— dissyllables 
in le after a mute ? in y after a consonant ? What sort of adjectives double 
the final consonant before er and est? What adjectives are not compared? 
What adjectives are compared irregularly ? 

Parsing the Adjective. 

126. Adjectives are parsed by stating their class, 
the degree of comparison (if compared), and the 
nouns which they qualify. 

EXERCISES. 

[1. Point out the adjectives in the following Exercise: parse them; com- 
pare them ; thus, a good father ; " Good," an adjective, positive degree, qual- 
ifies u father," compared irregularly, good, better, best. 

2. Point out the nouns, and tell their gender and number as directed ; thus, 
44 lather," a noun, masculine, singular.] 

A good father, a wiser man, a more beautiful girl, wild horses, 
young colts, a sweeter apple, the wisest prince, green trees, the 
honest farmers, the most virtuous people, the richer tradesman, 
the better scholar, the tallest girl, the finer sheep, large oranges, 
the merriest fellows, the old soldier, pretty dogs, an ugly calf, the 
tamest rabbits, the little mouse, the longest stick, a wider table, 
a most excellent thing, the highest house, the most fruitful 
garden. 

Numekals. — Four men, the fourth day, six days, the seventh 
day, 365 days, ten horses, the first time ; — of four houses, the first 
is of wood ; the second, of stone ; the third and the fourth, of 
brick. 

[3. Turn hacU, and go over the adjectives in the exercise, Lesson 10, 
in the same way. 

4. In both exercises, change singular nouns into plural, and plural into sin- 
gular; give the rule for the plural, and then read the phrase go changed: 
thus, Father, pi. fathers. •' The plural is commonly formed by adding s to 
the singular," good fathers. 

5. Write Sentences containing any of the adjectives in the preceding 
list, or any others you can think of. Teacher may give a new list to be used 
in the same way,] 



M PRONOUNS. 

LESSON 1 2 —Pronouns. 

[IZevieiv the two p?~eceding Zessons^ and answer t/ie questions.] 

127. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a 
noun; as, John is a good boy; he is diligent in his 
studies. The hoy who studies will learn. 

128. The word to which the pronoun relates, and 
for which it stands, is called its antecedent. 

129* Sometimes a pronoun is used as a substantive 1 (40) 
in a general sense, without any antecedent expressed; as, He 
who studies will learn. 

130* A pronoun sometimes has another pronoun for its ante- 
cedent ; as, You and /must attend to our duties. 2 

131. Pronouns may be divided into four class- 
es ; Personal, Relative, Interrogative, and Adjective. 

132. The Accidents of Personal, Relative, and Interroga- 
tive pronouns, like those of nouns, are Person, Gender* 
Number 9 and Case. [Appendix IV, 4.] 



133. Illtjstkation. — Generally pronouns are used to avoid 
the too frequent repetition of the nouns for which they stand. 
Thus, instead of saying, John is a good boy ; John is diligent in 
John's studies ; we say, " John is a good boy ; he is diligent in Ms 
studies." 

134. Some pronouns relate to nouns or substantives ; as, " He 
who studies will learn ; " others are used to ask questions ; as, 
" WJiat did he say ? " and others are used, like adjectives, in con- 
nection with nouns ; as, "My book," " That horse." But, though 
a pronoun may indicate a noun, it does not express any quality 
of it as an adjective does. 

I. — Personal Pronouns. 

135. Personal Pronouns are those which dis- 
tinguish 'the person by their form. They are either 
simple or compound. 

A. & P. Gr. » 109. a 730. 



PERSONAL PROXOTJKS. 2§ 

They stand directly for the nouns which they represent. The 
i place of any personal pronoun may be supplied "by its noun. 

ISO. The simple personal pronouns are I, thou, he, 
she, it; with their plurals, ive, ye or you, they. 

One used in a general sense to represent a person, may he re- 
garded as a personal pronoun ; as, " One can never know, etc." 

137 . I is of the first person, and denotes the speaker. 

188. Thou is of the second person, and denotes the person 
spoken to. 

139. He, she, it, are of the third person, and denote the 
person or thing spoken of. 

140. The personal pronouns are thus inflected : 







SINGULAR. 






PLURAL. 








Nom. 


Boss. 


Obj. 


Nom. 


Poss. 


Obj. 


1. 


m. or /. 


I 


mine 


me 


We 


ours 


us 


2. 


m. or /. 


Thou 


thine 


thee 


You 


yours 


you 


8. 


masc. 


He 


his 


him 


They 


theirs 


them 


3. 


fern. 


She 


hers 


hers 


They 


theirs 


them 


8. 


n-eut. 


It 


its 


it 


They 


theirs 


them 



Observations. 

14:1. In proclamations, charters, editorial articles, and the like, 
tve is frequently applied to one person ; thus an editor writes, 
" We think." 

1£2. In addressing persons, you is commonly put both for 
the singular and the plural, and has always a plural verb. 
Thou is used only in addresses to the Deity, or any important 
object in nature; or to mark special emphasis ; or, in the 
language of contempt. The plural form, ye, is now but seldom 
used. 

143. The pronoun it has a variety of uses: 

1. Regularly as the neuter pronourTof the third person ; as, 
Life is short ; it should be improved. 

2. As an indefinite subject of the verb to he, followed by 
a substantive in any person or number ; as It is I. It is you. It 
is they ; or after the verb in interrogative sentences ; as, Who is it f 

2 



26 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

3. As an introductory subject before a verb followed by a 

substantive clause ; 1 as, It is certain that he will never mend. It 
is wrong to be idle. 

4. Indefinitely before impersonal verbs, (291) ; as, It 
bails, It rains, etc. 

5. As a mere expletive ; as, Come and trip it as you go. 

14:4. The jmssessive ease of the pronoun can not, like the 
possessive of the noun, be followed by the name of the thing 
possessed. Thus, we can say, Mary's book, but not "hers book ; " 
and yet we can say equally well, "It is Mary's," or "it is hers.'' 
In both these last expressions, the name of the thing possessed is 
not expressed but implied. 2 

*** Hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, should never be written her' 8, 
it's, our's, your' s, their' s. 

Compound Personal Pronouns. 

145. The compound personal pronouns are 
Myself, thyself, himself, herself, itself; with 

their plurals,, ourselves, yourselves, themselves. 

146. These pronouns are used, without change of form, in the 
nominative and the objective cases. They have no posses- 
sive. In the nominative they are emphatic, and are added to 
their respective personal pronouns or nouns, or are used instead 
of them ; as, " I myself did it ; " " himself shall come." In the 
objective they are reflexive, showing that the agent is also the 
object of his own act ; as, " Judas went and hanged himself" 

Ourself and yourself are used as compounds corresponding to 
we and you applied to individuals ; as, " We ourself will follow. " 
"You must do ii yourself ." 

Parsing. 

147. The personal pronouns may be parsed briefly 
thus ; / is a pronoun of the first person, masculine (or 
feminine), in the nominative singular. 

Anal. * 120 , 121. A. & P. Gr. * 241, 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 27 

QUESTIONS.— What is a pronoun? How are pronouns divided? 

> What is a personal pronoun? Why is it called personal? What are 
they? Decline the first — the second — the third. Of what person is If — 
thou f — he, she, u ? What does the first person denote ? — the second ? — the 
third ? To what class do myself, thyself, etc., belong ? In what cases are 
they used? How are they applied in the nominative ?— in the objective ? 
How is yo u applied?— thou f— it f 

EXERCISES. 

[1. Go over the following list of pronouns and tell their person. Go over 
them again and tell their gender ; again, and tell their number : again, and 
tell their case ; and lastly, tell their gender, number, and case, together.] 

I, thou, we, me, us, thine, he, him, she, hers, they, thee, them, 
•its, theirs, you, her, ours, yours, mine, his, I, me, them, us, we, 
thou, thine, ye, ours, yours. Himself, yourselves, herself, them- 
selves, ourself, yourself, itself. 

[2. Point out the pronouns in the following Exercise. Parse them by tell- 
ing their person, gender, number, and case ; thus, " me," a pronoun, first per- 
son, masculihe, in the objective, singular. 

3. Point out the nouns and parse them ; the adjectives and parse them, 
compare and tell the degree of comparison. 

4. Read over each sentence, and tell for what each of the pronouns stands ; 
thus, me stands for the speaker ; you for the person spoken to, etc.] 

Give me the pears you bought of him ; I like them better than 
the apple he bought ; it was sour. She told us what we said to 
her, and they heard her. Put it on, will you ? He likes them 
because they are sweet. Take them to John. I gave them to 
her. We will do it, if you wish. The men said they would do 
it. The girl said she did not know them. The boy thought he 
knew them. You and I went with them to meet her after she 
had seen him. He and I can do it, though you can not. James 
bought that book ; it is therefore his, and not hers. 

" Remember thy Creator in the days of thy youth." " Honor 
thy father and thy mother, that thy days may be long in the land 
which the Lord thy God giveth thee." " As ye would that others 
should do to you, do ye even so to them." " He who loves money 
more than honor, will rate it above honesty." " One that is 
perfectly idle will be perfectly weary." " Praise not the unwor- 
thy, though they roll in riches." 

[5. Take any easy reading lesson, and go over it in the same way. 

6. Read the preceding exercises, using nouns instead of pronouns.] 



28 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

LESSON 13.— II. Relative Pronouns. 

\*Revien> the preceding Lesson, and answer the questions*] 

148. A Relative Pronoun is one that relates! 
to, and connects its clause with, a noun or pronoun] 
before it, called the antecedent j as, 

" The master toho taught us." 

149^ 1. The antecedent is commonly a noun or pronoun ; | 
sometimes a phrase (335) or a clause (334:), 

2. The antecedent is always limited or explained by the I 
relative clauses ; l as, 

The boy who reads ; 

He who does well, will be rewarded ; 

James is sicJc, which accounts for his absence. 

150. Relative Pronouns are Simple or Compound. 

151. The simple relative pronouns are who, 
which, that, and what. Who and which are alike 
in both numbers ; and are thus inflected : 



g. and Plur. 


Sing, and Plur. 


Who 


Which 


Whose 


Whose 


Whom 


Which 



Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 

152. 1. Who is applied to persons ; as, 

The boy who reads. 

2. And also to inferior animals, and things without life, 
when they are represented as speaking and acting like rational 
beings. 

153. 1. Which is applied to inferior ani- 
mals, and things without life ; as, 

The dog ivhich barks ; the book which was lost. 

2. And also to collective nouns composed of persons ; as, 
" the court of Spain, which ; " " the company which." And like- 
Anal.— 1 1 15. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 29 

wise after tlie name of a person used merely as a word ; as, " The 
court of Queen Elizabeth, which was but another name for pru- 
dence and economy." 

154:. Which was formerly applied to persons as well as 
things, and is so used in the common version of the Scriptures. 

155. T'ltat is often used as a relative, instead of 
who or which. It is applied both to persons and 
things ; as, the man that walks ; the stone that rolls. 

156. What, as a relative pronoun, is applied to 
things onig, and is never used but when the antece- 
dent is omitted; as, 

" This is what I wanted "=that which I wanted. 1 

Observations on the Relative. 

157. The compound relatives are whoever, 
tvhosoever, whatever, and whatsoever, and are 

equivalent to the relative and a general, or indefinite 
antecedent ; as, 

" Wliosoever committeth sin, is the servant of sin ; " 3 that is, 
" any one" or " every one who committeth sin," etc. " Whatsoever 
things are of good report ; " i. e. "All things (without exception) 
which are of good report." [See A. & P. Gr. 752.] 

158. The office of the relative is twofold. — 1st. It is used to 
connect its clause with the antecedent for the purpose of further 
describing it. Thus used, it is said to be additive ; as, " Light 
is a body which moves with great celerity "—and it moves, etc. 
2d. It is used to connect its clause with the antecedent for the 
purpose of limiting or restricting it like an adjective or adjunct. 
Thus used, it is said to be restrictive ; as, " The man who is 
good is happy "=The good man is happy. 

159. Which and what are sometimes used as adjectives, 
and have a noun following 1 them ; as, " Tell me what books you 
are reading ; " " Which things are an allegory." In this sense 
which applies either to persons or things, and in meaning is 
equivalent to this or these. 

A. & P. Gr.— 1 26o. 



30 RELATIVE PEO^OU^S. 

160. Who, and also which and what, without a noun 
following, are sometimes used as indefinite pronouns ; as, I 

do not know who will be our next President. 

Parsing the Eelatiye. 

161. The relative pronoun is parsed by stating its 
gender, number, person, and case, and its antecedent. 
(The gender, number, and person, are always the same 
as those of the antecedent.) 

" The boy who." — " Who " is a relative pronoun, masculine, in 
the nominative singular, and refers to " boy " as its antecedent. 

Q TTESTIONS— What is a relative pronoun ? What is the word to which 
it relates called ? What is the proper use of the relative pronoun What 
are the relative pronouns ? What is who applied to ? What is which 
applied to? Why is that used as a relative ? To what is it applied? 
What sort of a relative is what f What does it include ? What sort of 
words are ivhosvsr, etc. ? When which and what are followed by nouns, 
what part of speech are they? In parsing the relative what are mentioned ? 
How are the gender, number, and person of the relative determined ? 

EXERCISES. 

[1. Is it proper to say — the man tvJio, or the man ivhicJi ? why ? 

the dog who, or the dog which ? why ? 

the tree who, or the tree which ? why? 

the family who, or the family which ? why ? 

3. In the following sentences, point out the relative, and the word to 
which it relates. 

3. What is the use of the relative in the first sentence ? in the second ? in 
the third? etc.] (158.) 

The boy who studies will improve. I love the man who tells 
the truth, but all hate him who deals in falsehood. Do you 
remember the man whom we met ? There is the book which you 
lost. It is the same book that you bought.. That is the lady 
who has been kind to us, and whose hand is ever open to the 
poor. It is the hand of the diligent that maketh rich. He that 
giveth to the poor lendeth to the Lord. The temple which 
Solomon built. He who preserves me, to whom I owe my being 
whose I am, and whom I serve, is eternal. 

[4. In the preceding sentences, wherever possible, change the relative 
clause for an adjective; as, "The boy who studies = studious boy; and 
write out the sentences.] 



INTEREOGATIVE PKCWOUNS. 31 

Interrogative Pronouns. 

162. Who, which, £nd what, wfieii used in 
asking questions, are called Interrogative pronouns. 

163. The antecedent of an interrogative pronoun is found 
intheansiver to the question; as, "Who did this?" "Joan 
did it." John is the antecedent. 

164. As- interrogatives, tvho is applied to persons 
only ; which and wfcaf, either to persons or things. 
■What is indeclinable. 

165. Who, tvhich, and what, used responsively, 
are indefinite pronouns; * as, " I know who did it." 

Passing. 

I#6. Interrogative Pronouns are parsed by stating 
the gender, number, and case. Thus, 

" Who saw the accident ? " Who is an interrogative pronoun, 
masculine or feminine, third person, in the nominative singular. 

" Who did that ? John." Who is an interrogative pronoun, 
masculine, in the nominative singular. Its antecedent is " John " 
in the answer to the question. 

QJJESTIOXS.— What are the interrogative pronouns? Why are they 
called interrogative ? As an interrogative, what is who applied to '(—which ? 
—what ? In parsing the interrogative, what is mentioned ? 

EXERCISES. 

[1. Point out in which of the following sentences, ivho, which and what are 
relatives ; in which interrogatives ; in which indefinites. Parse the interrog- 
ative and indefinite pronouns.] 

Who steals my purse steals trash. To whom did you give 

that hook ? What I do thou knowest not now. Who you 

are, what you are, or to whom you belong no one knows. 

What shall I do ? Who built that house ? Do you know by 

whom that house was built ? Is that "the man who built that 

house ? Which book is yours ? Do you know which book is 

yours ? What is wanted ? 1 know what is wanted. 

[2. Write sentences, each of which shall contain one of these pronouns in 

one or other of these different senses.] 

A. & P. Gr.— * '484. 



32 ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

LESSON 14.— Adjective Pronouns. 

[Review the two preceding Zessons^ and answer the questions. ~\ 

167. Adjective Pronouns are -words used 
sometimes like adjectives to qualify a noun, and 
sometimes like pronouns to stand instead of nouns. 
There are four sorts ; viz., the Possessive, Distributive, 
and Indefinite. 

168. The Possessive pronouns are such as de- 
note possession. They are my, thy, his, her, its, 
our, your, their. 1 

169. The Distributive pronouns represent ob- 
jects as taken separately. They are each, every, 

either, neither. 2 

170. The Demonstrative pronouns point out 
objects definitely. They are this and that, with their 
plurals, these and those. 

171. The Indefinite pronouns denote persons or 
things indefinitely. They are none 9 any, all, such, 
whole, some, both, one, other, another. The 

three last are inflected like nouns. 

Observations. 

172. These pronouns are called adjective, because, like ad- 
jectives, they either are, or may be, follotved by a noun 

which they limit. 

173. Possessive pronouns have the same meaning as 
the possessive case of the personal pronouns to which they relate, 
but are used differently. The possessive pronoun must always 
have a noun after it, the possessive case of the personal, never, as 
it always refers to a noun previously expressed ; thus, 

A. & P. Gr.— > 292-295, a 296-301. 



ADJECTIVE PKO^OTmS. 33 

Possessive Pronoun. Possessive Case. 

This is my book ; This book is mine. 

That is her pen ; That pen is hers. 

This is your hat ; This hat is yours. 

It is tJieir house ; The house is theirs. 

Note.— The word own (properly an adjective) is sometimes added to a pos- 
sessive to make it emphatic; as, "mtfown" "their- own," ''the boy's own 
book/— A. & P. Gr. 295. 

1 7&. His and her, followed by a noun, are possessive pro- 
nouns ; not followed by a noun, they are personal pronouns. 

175. That is sometimes a demonstrative, sometimes a rela- 
tive, and sometimes a conjunction ; thus, 
Bern. That book is mine. 
Bel. It is the book that I bought. 
Conj. I read, that I may learn. 

17 G» Among indefinites may also be reckoned such words as 
no, few, many, several, etc. ; — the compounds whoever, 
whatever, whichsoever, etc., and tvho, ivliich, and 

what, in responsive sentences. 1 (165.) 

*^* JVone is used in both numbers ; but it can not be joined 
to a noun. 

Parsing. 

177. Adjective pronouns are parsed by stating their 
class, and the ivord which they qualify " thus, 

" My book." My is a possessive adjective pronoun; and quali- 
fies book. 

QUESTIONS. — How many sorts of adjective pronouns are there? 
Name them. Why called adjective pronouns ? What is a possessive 
pronoun? Name the possessive pronouns. What is a distributive pro- 
noun? Name them.— A demonstrative pronoun? Name them.— An indefi- 
nite pronoun. Name them. In what are possessive pronouns and the 
possessive case of personal pronouns the same ? In what do they differ ? 
Give an example of the use of each. How is kl own" used ? When are 
his and her possessives ?— when personals ? In how many different ways 
is "that" used? How is " none" used? How are adjective pronouns 
parsed ? 

A. & P. Gr.— x 284. 



34 EXERCISES. 

EXERCISES. 

[1. In the following Exercise, point out the adjective pronouns, and 
parse them ; the nouns, and parse them. Point out the personal pronouns 
in the possessive case.] 

My book, her shoes, your horse, their father, his brother, every 

hour, that table, these quills- This is my book ; that book is 

yours. Where is my hat ? These apples are good ; give some 

to your brothers. 1 will give one to each. 1 have given them 

all away, every one. Every day try to do good to some person. 

This book will do as well as that one. Every boy should 

keep his own books Do good to all men — injury to none. 

This book is"mine — that is yours. 



LESSON 15.— Exercises. , 
Nouns, Articles, Adjectives, and Pronouns. 

[1. In the following Exercise, point out the articles, and parse them;— 
the nouns, and parse them ; — the adjectives and parse them ;— the pro- 
nouns, and parse them :] 

I found my hat upon your table ; but where is yours ? Who 

put that glove in my cap ? Have you seen the book which my 

father gave to me ? That rod of yours is longer than mine, but 

not so long as John's. Those trees have lost their leaves. 

Every book on that shelf is mine ; I will give you a list of them. 

Keep this knife for my sake ; it is a good one. All men are 

mortal ; time waits for no one ; a wise man will improve every 

moment to some useful purpose. An idle man will come to 

poverty ; but he that is diligent increases his store. They that 

walk with the wise shall be wise ; but a companion of fools shall 

be destroyed. Give to him that asketh thee, and from him that 

would borrow of thee, turn not thou away. 

Write other sentences containing the parts of speech above named, and 
parse them as directed. 

[1. Be view thoroughly from Lesson 10, answering promptly and accurately 
all the questions. 

2. Review from the beginning topically, reciting accurately all the defini- 
tions and rules. This may require two or three recitations. Write addi- 
tional exercises under each lesson.] 



VERBS. 35 

LESSON 16.-Verbs. 

178. A Verb is a word or words used to express 
the act, being, or state of its subject ; as, 

I write ; grass is green ; the letter has been tvritten. 

179. The subject of a verb is that person or thing whose 
act, being, or state the verb expresses. 

Classification of Verbs. 

180. 1. In relation to their meaning and office in a sen- 
tence : 

Verbs are of three kinds ; Transitive, Intransitive, and Attribu- 
tive. 

2. In relation to their form verbs are Regular, Irregular, and 
Defective (191). 

3. In the formation of Compound tenses they are distin- 
guished as Principal and Auxiliary. — (236.) [Appendix IV, 5.] 

Meaning and Use of Verbs. 

181. A Transitive Verb expresses an act done 
by one person or thing to another ; as, James strikes 
the table ; The table is struck by James. 

182. An Intransitive Verb expresses the be- 
ing or state of its subject, or an act not done to 
another ; as, I am ; he sleeps ; you run. 

183. An Attributive Verb asserts and connects 
an attribute with its subject ; l as, " Snow is white." 

Observations. 

184:. Transitive verbs are those which express an act that 
passes over from the actor to the person or thing acted upon ; 
as, He loves us. Here, " He " is the actor, " loves " expresses the 
act, and us, the object loved, or acted upon. The same thing can 
be expressed by another form ; thus, " We are loved by him." 

A. & P. Gr,— ^312. 



36 YEEBS. 

Of these two forms of the verb, the first is called the active voice, 
and the second, the passive voice. (204:.) 

1 85* Intransitive verbs are verbs not transitive, whether 
they express action or not. They may form of themselves a 
complete predicate (340); and they have only one form, 
namely, that of the active voice ; as, I am ; yon walk ; they run. 

180. Attributive verbs require to complete the predi- 
cate some word or words expressing a quality or circumstance 
affirmed of the subject. 

187* Sometimes a verb, usually intransitive, becomes 
transitive by being followed by a noun of a similar signifi- 
cation ; as, intransitive, "I run;" transitive, "I run a race." 
Also by the addition of another word ; as, intransitive, " I 
laugh; " transitive, " I laugh at him." 

188. A transitive verb is sometimes used in an intransi- 
tive sense, when the nature of the act and not its effect is con- 
sidered ; thus, transitive, " The boy reads a book ; " intransitive, 
" The boy reads well." 

189. Transitive, intransitive, and attributive verbs may be 
distinguished by the sense, as follows : 

1st. A transitive verb in the active voice (205) requires an 
object after it to complete the sense ; as, The boy studies gram- 
mar, in the passive voice the person or thing that receives the act 
becomes the subject. An intransitive verb requires no object 
after it, but the sense is complete without it ; as, He sits ; you 
ride. An attributive verb requires after it, to complete the 
sense, some word, phrase, or clause, not an object, to limit or ex- 
plain fche subject ; as, " The sun is bright." 

2d. In the use of the transitive verb, there are always three 
things implied ; the actor, the act, and the object acted upon. 
In the use of the intransitive, there are only two— the sub- 
ject or thing spoken of, and the state or action ascribed to it. 
In the use of the attributive verbs, there are three—the sub- 
ject, the verb, and the attribute. 



190. Illustration. — The verb is a necessary word in 

every sentence (346). Without it, we can neither affirm nor 



VERBS 37 

deny, nor express any fact or proposition. As we wish to express 
an act or state in a variety of ways ; as, present, past, future, 
actual, contingent, conditional, etc., so there is a variety of forms 
assumed by the verb in order to express these things. Two im- 
portant things must be attended to : 

1. Distinguish the verb from every other part of speech. 
This can easily be done, if the pupil will only remember that 
every word that tells us what a person or thing is or does, or what 
is done to a person or thing, is a verb. Thus, when we say, " John 
writes," we know that " writes " is a verb, because it tells us what 
" John " does. 

2. Discriminate when a verb is transitive, when intransitive, 
and when attributive, as described above (189). 

Q TTESTIONS.— -What is a verb ? What is the subject of a verb ? How 
are verbs divided, in relation to their manner and use ? — in relation to their 
form ?— in the formation of compound tenses ? What is a transitive verb ? 
— an intransitive ?— an attributive? What do transitive verbs express? 
In how many forms can a transitive verb express any thing ? What are 
these forms called ? How many forms have intransitive verbs ? Does a 
verb usually intransitive ever become transitive ? How ? Are some verbs 
used transitively and intransitively? What requires an object after it to 
complete the sense? What requires no object after it? What does an 
attributive verb require after it to complete the sense ? In the use of the 
transitive, what three things are implied ? What in the use of the intransi- 
tive verb ? What in the use of the attributive verb ? How do you know 
which word in a sentence is a verb ? How do you know whether the verb 
is transitive— intransitive— attributive ? 

EXERCISES. 

[1. In the following Exercises, point out the verbs, and tell how you know 
them to be verbs ; thus, ll learn " is a verb, because it tells us what " boys" 
do ; "rides " is a verb, because it tells us what " a man " does, etc. 

2. Tell which verbs are transitive, which intransitive, and which attributive, 
and how you know them to be such ; thus, "learn " is transitive, because it tells 
what " boys " do to lessons ; " rides " is intransitive, because what " a man " 
does is not done to any other person or thing; "tastes' 1 is attributive, be- 
cause it affirms the attributive or quality " sour " of the subject "apple."] 

Boys learn lessons. A man rides.- The apple tastes sour. 

We read a book. My dog barks. The fire burns. 

The fire burns me. He took their apples. You saw them. 

We touched it. They strike her. 1 threw a stone at 

his window. They killed my rabbit. The horses eat their 

corn. The cows drink water. 1 can ride well. A ride 



38 POEMS OF VERBS. 

improves the health. That man walks fast. America was 

discovered by Columbus. A long walk tires me. 1 love her 

and you. Sheep are animals. 

[In the following sentences, it takes two, and sometimes three- words to 
make the verb ; and these two or three are always parsed together as one 
word.] 

I will water the garden. James can write a letter. — You may 

ride on my horse. — Robert will give a book to you. Yes, he 

will give you a book. You must light the candle. Your 

father has sold his horse. — — I have bought him. John will 

brush your coat. — — He should have brushed it before. James 

will have written his letter before night. He may "have writ- 
ten it already. He should be told of his mistake. -He may 

have been misinformed. 



LESSON 17 -Forms of Verbs. 

\JReview iho?*ong7i2j> the jweceding Wesson.] 

191. In respect of form, verbs are divided into 
Regular, Irregular, and Defective. 

192. AHegular Verb is one that forms its Past 
tense (232) in the Indicative mood (213), active 
voice (205), and its Past participle (251) by- 
adding ed to the Present; as, Present, act; Past, 
acted ; Past participle, acted. 

N.B.— Verbs ending in e silent, drop the e before ed ; as love, loved. 1 The 
pronunciation of some forms of several regular verbs is different from the 
written form ; thus, stop, stopped, is pronounced stopt ; bar, barred, bard ; 
walk, walked, walkt, etc. 

193. An Irregular Verb is one that does not 
form its Past tense in the Indicative active, and its 
PaM participle by adding ed to the Present; as, 
Present, wr iie ; Past ivrote ; Past participle, written 
(288). 

A. & P. Gr.— * 06. 



FORMS OP VERBS. 39 

194. A Defective Verb is one in which some of 
the parts are tv anting. To this class belong chiefly 
Auxiliary and Impersonal verbs (290)* 

Auxiliary Verbs. 

195. The Auxiliary or helping verbs are those by the help 
of which verbs are inflected. They are the following, which, ex- 
cept be, are used as auxiliaries only in the present and the past 
tense ; viz. : 

Pres. Do, have, shall, will, may, can, am, must 
Past. Did, had, should, would, might, could, was, 

19 G. The verb to be is used as an auxiliary in all its tenses. 

197 • Be (Pres. Ind. am,) do, and have are also principal 
verbs : 

As Principals — I am a man ; I do the work ; I have a horse. 

As Auxiliaries — I am loved ; I do speak ; I have heard. 

Observations. - 

19 S. The auxiliary (or helping) verbs are so called, be- 
cause, by their help, the verb is enabled to express varieties of 
time and manner of acting or being, which it could not do with- 
out them. The auxiliary always stands before its verb, and the 
two are regarded in parsing as one word; as, I will write, 
he has written, we may write. 1 

199. Of the auxiliaries, shall implies duty or obligation ; 
will, purpose or resolution ; may, liberty ; can, ability. The 
past tense of these verbs is should, would, might, could ; but in 
this tense these verbs express the idea of time very indefinitely. 2 

200. In affirmative sentences, will, in the first person, inti- 
mates resolution and promising ; as, " I will go ; " in the second 
and third, it commonly foretells ; as, " Tou will be happy." 

201. Shall, in the first person, only foretells ; as, " I shall go 
to morrow ; " — in the second and third, It promises, commands, or 
threatens ; 3 as, " Thou shalt not steal." 

QUESTIONS.— How are verbs divided in respect of form ? What is a 
regular verb?— an irregular- verb?— a defective verb? What are the 

Anal.— * 201. 211. *217. A. & P. Gr.~ *335 -344. 



40 



IKFLECTIOST OF VERES. 



principal defective verbs ? Why are auxiliary verbs so called ? What verbs 
are principal verbs as well as auxiliary ? How are the auxiliaries shall and 
will distinguished ? 

EXERCISES. 

[Write the Past tense, and Past participle of the following regular 
verbs as in the succeeding exercise No. 3 :] 

Fear, love, look, hope, show, learn, move, wash, clean, walk, 

desire, return, oblige, form, force, punish, support, turn, touch, 

disturb, place, try, deny, cry, delay. 

[2. Change the following verbs from the Past tense into the Present :] 
Marked, protected, composed, favored, turned, hated, mixed, 

believed, wounded, rushed, preached, hunted, crushed, warned, 

pleaded, loved, ended. 

[3. In the following list, tell which verbs are regular, and which are irregu- 
lar ; and why:] 

Present. Past. Past Participle. 

Spoil spoiled spoiled 

Go went gone 

Take took taken 

Write wrote written 

Hope hoped hoped 

Eun ran run 

Freeze froze frozen 

Spy spied spied 

Obey obeyed obeyed 



LESSON 18— Inflection of Verbs. 

\JReriew the twop7*ecedin& Lessons^ 

202. The Accidents of Verbs are Voices, Moods? 
Tenses, Numbers, and Persons (33). 



Of Voice. 

203. Voice is a particular form of the verb, which 
shows the relation of the subject, or thing spo- 
ken of, to the action expressed by the verb. 



^JSTFLECTIOIS" OF VERBS. 41 

204. Transitive verbs have two voices, called 
the Active and the Passive. 

205. The Active Voice represents the subject 

of the verb as acting upon some object; as, James 
strikes the table. 

206. Here the verb " strikes/' in the active voice, indicates 
what its subject, "James," does to the object, table. 

2G7. The Passive Voice represents the sub- 
ject of the verb as acted upon by some person or 
thing ; as, The table is struck by James (287). 

208. Here the verb "is struck," in the passive voice, indicates 
what is done to the subject, "table" by James. 

209. Intransitive verbs have the form of the active voice. 
A few admit a passive form, but not a passive sense ; thus, I am 
come, means the same thing as, I have come. 

210. When a verb, usually intransitive, is made transi- 
tive {187), it is then capable of a passive voice ; as, "My 
race is run" " He is laughed at by me." 



211. Illustration. — Both the active and the passive voice 
express precisely the same act, but each in a different way. With 
the active voice, the subject does the act, or is active ; with the 
passive voice, the subject is acted upon, or is passive. The words 
active and passive then strictly belong to the subject, but are pro- 
perly used to distinguish those voices or forms of the verb which 
show that the subject acts, or is acted upon : that is, the form of 
the verb which represents its subject as active, is called the Ac- 
tive voice; and that which represents its subject as passive, is 
called the Passive voice. 

212. Remembering, then, that the subject of a verb is the 
person or thing spoken of, when, in any sentence, we see that that 
subject acts, we know that the verb is in the active voice ; thus, 
when we say, " Cain killed Abel," we see that " Cain," the person 
spoken of, is represented as acting, and therefore " killed " is in 
the active voice. Again, when we say, " Abel was killed by Cain," 
the subject or thing spoken of is Abel . it is represented as acted 
tipon, and therefore " teas killed " is in the passive voice. 



42 MOODS. 

Note.— Notwithstanding the same act may be expressed "by the active and 
the passive voice, the writer or speaker makes choice of the one or the other, 
according as he wishes to give prominence to the actor, the act, or the person 
or thing affected by the act (see Analysis *88). , 

QUESTIONS.— What belongs to the inflection of verbs? What is 
meant by voice? How many voices has the transitive verb in English? 
What are they? How does the active voice represent its subject? How 
does the passive voice represent it ? What voice have intransitive verbs ? 
Have they ever a passive form ? Have they ever a passive sense ? When 
intransitive verbs are made transitive, can they be used in the passive voice ? 

EXEBCISES. 

[In each of the following sentences, the pupil may be questioned, as on the 
first, in the following manner : Who is the person spoken of in this sentence ? 

Ans.— John. What is said of John ? Ans.— He studies.-— Does the 

word studies represent John as acting, or as acted upon ? Ans. — As acting. 

In what voice then is t; studies ? " Ans.— Active voice. Change the 

sentence so as to make " grammar" the thing spoken of, and express the 

same meaning. Ans.— t; G*rammar is studied by John." — ^-Analyze this 

sentence in the same way as the other.] 

John studies grammar. Cain slew Abel . Noah built the 

ark. The temple was built by Solomon. Columbus discov- 
ered America. Pride ruins thousands. Most men are gov- 
erned by custom. 1 have written a letter. Them that honor 

me, I will honor. Perseverance overcomes all obstacles. 



LESSON 19-Moods. 

\*Review the preceding Wesson, and answer t/ie questions*] 

213. Hood is the mode or manner of expressing the 
signification of the verb. 

2 1 4. Verbs have six moods ; namely, the Indica- 
tive* Potential, Subjunctive, Imperative, 

Infinitive, and Participial. 

215. The Indicative mood declares the fact ex- 
pressed by the verb simply, and without limitation ; as, 
He loves ; He is loved. 



MOODS. 43 

216. The Potential mood declares, not the fact 
expressed by the verb, but only its possibility; or the 
liberty, power ', mU, or obligation, of the subject with re- 
spect to it ; as, 

The wind may blow ; We may walk or ride ; I can swim; He 
would not stay ; You should obey your parents. 

Both the indicative and potential moods may be used in in- 
terrogative sentences. Have you written f May I go t 

217. The Subjunctive mood represents the fact 
expressed by the verb, not as actual, but as conditional, 

•desirable, or contingent ; as, 

" If he go away I will go with him." — " O that men were wise ! " 
Note. — This mood is subjoined to another verb, and dependent on it. 

218. The Imperative mood commands, exhorts, 
entreats, or permits ; as, 

Do this'; Remember thy Creator ; Hear, my people ; Go thy 
way. 

219. The Infinitive mood expresses the meaning 
of the verb in a general manner, without any distinc- 
tion of person or number, and commonly has to before 
it; as, To love. 

*#* For the uses of the infinitive see 402-500. 

220. The Participial mood is used to assume 
action or state of some subject: 1. As continuing or 
incomplete ; as, " I saw him running." 2. As complete 
or finished ; as, " We saw him ruined." 

The participle is always used in the same sentence with another 
verb, and can not be used alone. 

Observations. 

221. The form of the subjunctive mood differs from that 
of the indicative only, in the second and the third person singular 
of the present tense. The verb " to be " differs also in the past 
tense. 



44 MOODS* 

222. The imperative mood, strictly speaking, has only the 
second person, singular and plural ; because, in commanding, ex- 
horting, etc., the language of address is always used ; thus, " Let 
him love/' is equivalent to " Let thou him (to) love ; " where Let 
is the proper imperative, and love the infinitive depending on it. 
{494). 

223. The infinitive mood is often used as a verbal noun 

as the subject of another verb ; as, To play is pleasant ; or as the 
object of a transitive verb ; as, " Boys love to play." It has 
always a subject of its own 1 exx^ressed or implied, but its use 
is sometimes so general that it is unimportant to ascertain its 
subject, or impossible to designate any particular person or thing 
as such. 

*#* The use of the infinitive as a verbal noun does not deprive 
it of any attribute as a verb ; 2 for, if transitive, it may be followed 
by an object ; as, To forgive injuries is a duty. Strictly speak- 
ing, it is the infinitive clause which is used as a substantive, and 
not the verb alone. (See Analysis, 116.) 

224. A participle always has a subject l expressed or 
understood, to which it relates. 



225. Illustration. — If we regard the mode or manner in 
which an action presents itself to our minds, we may consider it 
either as an actual reality, or as a possibility, or as a contingency, 
or as a command, or as general and indefinite, or as merely assum- 
ing an act of some subject. The expression of these different 
circumstances gives rise to what are called moods. Thus we may 
say, lie goes, or lie may go, or if lie go, or go, or to go, or going. 
These six forms of expression indicate the six moods as given 
above. 

Q TTJESTION'S.— What is mood ? How many moods are there ? What 
does the Indicative mood declare ?— the Potential ? What does the subjunc- 
tive mood represent ? What does the Imperative mood do ? What does 
the Infinitive mood express ? How is the Participial mood used ? In what 
parts does the Subjunctive differ from the Indicative ? How many persons 
has the Imperative mood ? What is a frequent use of the infinitive mood ? 

Anal.— 1 136, 1. 3 lo$, 2, 3. 



TENSES. 45 

LESSON 2 0. -Tenses. 

[Review the two jweceding .Lessons.] 

226. Tenses are certain forms of the verb, which 
serve to point out the distinctions of time* 

227 • Tune is naturally divided into Present, Past, and 

Future ; and an action may be represented, in any of these 
periods, either as incomplete and continuing, or as com- 
pleted at the time spoken of. This gives rise to six tenses, only 
two of which are expressed in English by a distinct form of the 
. verb. The others are formed by the aid of auxiliary verbs ; thus, 

( Action continuing ; as, I love, I do love, I am loving. 
Present \ 

' \ Action completed ; as, I have loved. 

p j Action continuing; as, I loved , 1 did love, I was loving. 

X Action completed ; as, I had loved. 

■p \ Action continuing ; as, I shall or will love. 

( Action completed ; as, I shall have loved. 

Note.— The time of the action expressed by a verb, may he further distin- 
guished by an adverb ; as, " He came yesterday ; " " He will come soon." 

228- The tenses in English are six ; namely, the 
Present, the Present-perfect, the Past, the 
Past-perfect, the Future, and the Future- 
perfect. 

Tenses of the Indicative Mood. 

229. The Indicative mood has all the six tenses ; 
they are used as follows : 

230. The Present tense expresses "what is going on 
at the present time ; as, I love you. / am loved 

231. The Present-perfect tense represents an 
action or event as completed at the present time ; 

or in a period of which the present forms a part ; as, 
"John has cut his finger." " I have sold my horse." "I 

have clone nothing this week." 



46 TEKSES OF THE OTHER MOODS. 

232. The Past tense expresses what took place 
in past time ; as, " God said, let there be light f " The 
ship sailed when the mail arrived' 9 

233. The Past-perfect tense represents an action 
or event as completed at or before a certain past 
time ; as, " I had walked six miles that clay ; " " All the 
judges had taken their places before Sir Soger came." 

234. The Future tense expresses what will take 
place in fat are time ; as, " I will see you again, and 
your hearts shall rejoice." 

235. The Future-perfect intimates that an ac- 
tion or event will be completed at or before a certain 
time, yet future; as, "I shall have got my lesson 
before ten o'clock to-morrow " 

236. The tenses inflected without an auxiliary, are called 
Simple tenses ; those with an auxiliary, are called Compound 
tenses. {180, 3.) 



LESSON 21 .—Tenses of the Other Moods. 

237. The Potential mood has four tenses; the 
Present, the Present-perfect, the Past^ and 
the Past-perfect. 

23$. The tenses in this mood indicate the time, not of the 
act expressed by the verb, but of the liberty , power , ivill, 
or obligation, expressed by the auxiliary, or sign of the 
tense ; thus, " I may write," does not express the act of icriting 
as present, but only the liberty to write, expressed- by the auxiliary 
may. 

239. Hence the time expressed by the verb in this mood is 
less definite, and depends not so much on the tense as on other 
toords with which it stands connected. This is the case especi- 
ally with the Past tense. 1 

A. & P. Gr.— 1 428—432. 



TENSES OF THE OTHER MOODS. 47 

240. The Subjunctive mood in its proper form, 
has only the present tense. The verb to be has the 
present and the past. 

The indicative and potential moods are also used in dependent 
clauses. (484). 

241. The Imperative mood may always be 
regarded as present; i. e. the command, etc., is 
present, though the doing of the act commanded is 
future. 

242. The Infinitive mood has two tenses; the 
Present and the Perfect. 

243. These do not so much indicate the time of the action as 
its state — the present, incomplete or indefinite ; the perfect, 

completed or finished at the time indicated by the principal verb 
or some other word with which it is connected. 

244. The Participial mood has three tenses; the 
Present, the Past, and the Perfect ; as, Active, 
Loving, loved, having loved. 1 Passive, Being loved, loved, 
liavi7ig ieen loved. 2 

245. Since the Participial mood does not affirm, but only 
assume an action or state of its subject, it partakes of the char- 
acter of the adjective, and limits or qualifies the subject to 
which it refers. 

Observations on the Tenses. 

246. The Present tense is used to express, 1st — the simple 
existence of the fact ; as, " He speaks." 2d — what is habitual 
or always true; as, "He takes snuff." 3d — in historical 
narration, 2 it is used for the past ; as, " Caesar leaves Gaul/' 
for « Caesar left Gaul." 

247. The Present-perfect is used, 1st — To express what 
has taken place at the present time, or in a period of 
time of which the present forms a part ; as, " My father lias 
arrived" 2d — To express an act or state continued through a 
period of time reaching to, and including the present ; as, 

A. & P. Gr.— l 455. 3 403, 404, 405. 



48 TENSES OF THE OTHER MOODS. 

" He has [nowj studied six months." 3d — To express an act 
long since completed, when the reference is not to the act of 

finishing, but to the thing finished as still existing ; as, " Milton 
has written poems." 

24z8. The time indicated by the Past tense is regarded as 
entirely past, however near ; as, " I saw him a moment ago." 
It is also used to express what was customary in past time ; as, 
" She attended church regularly." 

249. The Past tenses of the Potential, and the Subjunc- 
tive mood, are less definite in regard to time, than the same 
tenses in the Indicative. 

250. The Present Participle active ends always in ing, 
and has an active signification ; as, James is building a house. In 
many verbs, however, it has also a passive signification ; l as, The 
house was building, when the wall fell. 

251. The Past Participle has the same form in both 
voices. In the active voice, its signification is active, and it is 
never used except in connection with the auxiliary have or had ; 
as, He has concealed a dagger under his cloak ; — In the passive 
voice, its signification is passive ; as, He has a dagger concealed 
under his cloak. 2 

*#* Teacher illustrate this difference fully. 

252. The Perfect Participle is always compound, and 
has an active signification in the active voice, and a passive sig- 
nification in the passive voice. 

253. The participle in -ing is often used as a verbal or parti- 
cipial noun, having the nominative and the objective case, but 
not the possessive. In this character, the participle of a transi- 
tive verb may still retain the government of the verb, 
or it may be divested of it by inserting an article before it, and 
the preposition of after it ; as, In keeping his commandments, 
or, In the keeping of his commandments, there is a great 
reward. 3 

254. Some participles, laying aside the idea of time, and sim- 
ply qualifying a noun, become participial adjectives, and as 

such admit of comparison ; as, An amusing — a more amusing — a 
most amusing story. A most devoted friend. 

A. &P. Gr.— ' 456, 457. 2 459. 3 462, 



NUMBER AND PERSON". 49 

255. A participle may take a prefix and become a verbal 
adjective ; as, " ^authorized use of Ms credit." 

QUESTIONS.— What are tenses? How is time naturally divided? 
In each of these, how may an action or state be represented ? How inapy 
tenses are there in the English verb ? How many has the Indicative mood ? 
What are they ? What does the Present tense express ?— the Past ?— the 
Future ? What does the Present-perfect tense represent ?— the Past-perfect ? 
What does the Future-perfect tense intimate ? How many tenses has the 
Potential mood ?— tne Subjunctive ? — the Imperative ?— the Infinitive ?— the 
Participial ? In what different ways is the present tense used ?— the Present- 
perfect ? — the Past ? Has the participle in ing ever a passive signification ? 
Give an example. How is the perfect participle used ? Describe the 
use of the present participle as a verbal noun ? How do participles become 
adjectives ? What are such adjectives usually called ? Do they admit of 
comparison ? Give an example of a verbal adjective derived from a 
participle. 

[Sefore proceeding to the next lesson, review thoroughly from 
t/ie beginning in two or three recitations .] 



LESSON 2 2.— Number and Person. 

\Ileview the three preceding lessons, and answer the questions^ 

256. Every tense of the verb, except in the Infini- 
tive and Participial moods, has two Numbers, the 
Singular and the Plural ; and each of these has 
three Persons, except in the Imperative, which has 
only the Second.* 

257. The singular number is used with a subject in the sin- 
gular, and the plural number with a subject in the plural {4.4:6). 

258. The First person asserts of the person 
speaking / its subject is always / in the singular, and 
we in the plural ; as, /write; ive write. 

259. The Second person asserts of the person 
spoken to ; its subject is always thou in the singular, 
and ye or you in the plural ; as, Thou writest ; ye or 
you write. 

* Strictly speaking the verb itself has neither number nor person, but cer- 
tain forms to correspond with the number and person of the subject. 

3 



50 NUMBER AND PEESON*. 

260 '. In the second person the plural form is generally 
used for the singular ; as, John, you are idle. 

28 1. The Third person asserts of the person or 
thing spoken of; its subject is any noun, or the pro- 
noun he, she, it, or they, or any substantive clause 1 
used as a noun ; as, John reads ; he walks; they run; 
That I said so, is most true; To succeed in business 
requires close attention. 

Observations* 

262. The forms of the verb in the first, second, and third 
persons plural, are always like the first person singular. 

263. The second person singular of the present indicative 
active, ends in st or est ; as, thou lovest ; thou readest ; — of the 
past, generally in st ; as, thou locedst. All the other persons in 
both numbers in this tense are alike. 

264:. Verbs that end in s, sh, ch, z, oc, or o, form the third 
person singular of the present indicative active, by adding es ; 
(65) as, He teaches. All others add s; as, he loves, — reads. 
(See 274:.) 

265. An ancient form, now little used except in solemn 
address, has the ending eth in the third person singular ; as, 
teach^, ve&deth, doeth, ssath ; as, " All that a man hath will he 
give for his life." 

266. Verbs ending in y with a consonant before it, change y 
into i before the terminations est, es, eth, ed ; but not before 
ing ; ac, try, triest, tries, trieth, tried, trying. Verbs ending in e 
silent preceded by i change ie into y before ing ; as, lie, lying. 

267* The Infinitive mood, or any substantive clause 

sometimes expresses that of which a person speaks, and is there- 
fore the subject of the verb. When it does so it is always 
regarded as the third person, and a pronoun standing instead of 
it is in the neuter gender ; as, To play is pleasant ; it promotes 
health. 2 

Anal.— 1 120. A. & P. Gr.— 3 869. 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 51 

QUESTIONS.— Row many numbers has each tense ? What mood has 
no distinction of number or person ? How many persons are in each num- 
ber ? What mood has only the second person ? Of whom does the first 
person assert ? What is its subject in the singular ?— in the plural ? Of 
whom does the second person assert? What is its subject in the singular ? 
— in the plural ? Of whom or what does the third person assert ? What 
is its subject ? What parts in each tense are alike ? How is the second 
person singular formed in the present indicative ?— in the past tense ? When 
is the third person singular of the present indicative formed by adding es, or 
eth /—When by adding s, or th, or eth ? How is it formed when the verb 
ends in y after a consonant ? — in ie f 

EXEBCISES. 

[1. Tell the second person, singular of the following verbs, and how it is 
formed. 

2. Tell the third person, and how it is formed. 

3. Prefix thou to each verb, when put in the second person singular ; as, 
" thou tellest ; " and he to each, when put in the third ; as, " he tells. 1 ' 

Instead of thou, use the pronoun you, and change the verb to the proper 
form. Write out these exercises. 

4. Write Sentences, each of which shall contain one of the following 
verbs.] 

Tell, speak, sleep, walk, read, learn, smell, see, hear, taste, 
touch, handle, write, pay, eat, drink, warm, teach, go, do, fill, play, 
stand, sell, buy, study, copy. 

[5. In the following words, tell which are in the first person, and why;— 
in the second, and why ; — in the third, and why. 

6. Prefix to each verb, in the following list, the pronoun of the same per- 
son and number as the verb ; as, I love, thou lovest, etc.] 

Love, lovest, loves, runs, run nest, sleep, teach, preaches, 
teachest, writes, write, eats, goes, goest, go, tell, teaches, speaks, 
read, readest, sews, pay, look, walks, jump, hop, skip, laughs, sing, 
cry, criest, study, studies. 



LESSON 23.— Conjugation of Verbs. 

[The pupil should be thoroughly drilled in this Lesson, till he is able to tell 
every part at once and correctly— and to give promptly any part of the verb 
that may be required.] 

268. The Conjugation of a verb is the regular 
combination and arrangement of its several moods, 
tenses, numbers, and persons. 



52 THE VERB TO BE. 

269. In tlie active voice, most verbs have two 
forms; the Common; as, I read; and the Progres- 
sive; as, I am reading (285). 

270. Besides tliese, in the present and the past indicative 
active, there is a third form called the Emphatic ; as, I do 
•read, I did read. The other tenses, and also the progressive and 
the passive form, are rendered emphatic by placing a greater 
stress of voice on the first auxiliary ; as, I have read — I am read- 
ing — it is read. 

271* The principal parts of the verb are the Present 
Tense Indicative, the Present Participle, the Past 
Tense Indicative, and Past Participle. In parsing, the 
mentioning of these parts is called conjugating the verb. 

Present. Present Part. Past. Past Part, 

Active, Love, Loving, Loved, Loved. 

Passive, Am loved, Being loved, Was loved, Been loved. 

272. A synopsis of a verb consists of the first person singu- 
lar of each tense in the finite moods, and the forms of the several 
tenses of the infinitive and participial moods. 

The Verb TO BE. 

273. The attributive irregular verb To JBe is 
inflected through all its moods and tenses, as follows : 

Principal Parts. 

Present, am. Present Part. , being. Past, was. Past Part, been. 

Indicative Mood. 

PRESENT tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am. 1. We are. 

2. Thou art. 2. Yon are. 

3. He is. 3. They are. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 
Sign, have. 

1. I have been. 1. We have been. 

2. Thou hast been. 2. You have been. 

3. He has been. 3. They have been. 



THE VERB TO BE. 



53 



Singular. 

1. 1 was. 

2. Thou wast. 

3. He was. 



1. I liad been. 

2. Thou hadst been. 

3. He had been. 



PAST TEKSE. 

Plural. 

1. We were. 

2. You were. 

3. They were. 

PAST-PEEFECT TEXSE. 
Sign, had. 

1. We had been. 

2. You had been. 

3. They had been. 



FUTUEE TE:N T SE. 
Signs, shall, will. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall be. 1. We shall be. 

2. Thou shalt be. 2. You shall be. 

3. He shall be. 3. They shall be. 

FUTUEE-PEEFECT TE2sSE. 

Signs, shall have, will have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 

2. Thou shalt have been. 2. You shall have been. 

3. He shall have been. 3. They shall have been. 

Potential Mood. 

PEESEOT TE^SE. 
Signs, may, can, must. — Inflect with each. 



1. I may be. 

2. Thou niayst be. 

3. He may be. 



1. We may be. 

2. You may be. 

3. They may be. 



PEESEOT-PEEFECT TEKSE. 
Signs, may have, can have, or must have. — Inflect with each. 
1. I may have been. 1. "We may have been. 



2. Thou mayst have been. 

3. He mav have been. 



2. You may have been. 

3. They may have been. 



54 



THE VERB TO BE. 



PAST TENSE. 



Signs, might, could, would, should. — Inflect with each. 



Singular. 
1. I might be. 
2. . Thou mightst be. 
3. He might be. 



Plural. 

1. We might be. 

2. You might be. 

3. They might be. 



PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, might have, could have, would have, should 7iave.—Inftect 



with each. 



1. I might have been. 

2. Thou mightst have been. 

3. He might have been. 



1. We might have been. 

2. You might have been. 

3. They might have been. 



Singular. 

1. If I be. 

2. If thou be. 

3. If he be. 



Subjunctive Mood.* 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. If we be. 

2. If you be. 

3. If they be. 



PAST TENSE. 



1. If I were. 

2. If thou were or wert. 

3. If he were. 



1.- If we were. 

2. If you were. 

3. If they were. 



Singular. 
2. Be, or be thou. 



PRESENT TENSE. 
To be. 



Imperative Mood. 

Plural. 
2. Be, or be ye or you. 

Infinitive Mood. 

PERFECT TENSE. 
To have been. 



Participial Mood, (or participles.) 
Present, Being. Past, Been. Perfect, Having been. 

* Both the indicative and the potential mood are used in dependent 
clauses to express contingency, with a conjunction prefixed ; thus, If I am, 
If I ham been, If I was, If I had been, If I shall or will be, If I shall have 
been, If I may be, etc. 



THE VEKB TO LOVE. 55 

EXERCISES. 

[1. Let the pupil tell the tense, mood, person, and number of the fol- 
lowing words— parts of the verb to be; thus, " Am," present, indicative, first 
person, singular. 

2. Let him parse the same words; thus, "Am" is a verb, attributive, 
irregular ; am, was, been ; in the present, indicative, first person, singular.] 

Am. is, art, wast, I was, they were, we are, hast been, has been, 
we have been, hadst been, we had been, you have been, she has 
been, we were, they had been. 

I shall be, shalt be, we will be, thou wilt be, they shall be, it 
will be, thou wilt have been, we have been, they will have been, 
we shall have been, am, it is. 

I can be, mayst be, canst be, she may be, you may be, he must 
be, they should be, mightst be, he would be, it could be, wouldst 
be, you could be, he may have been, wast. 

We may have been, mayst have been, they may have been, I 
might have been, you should have been, wouldst have been ; (if) 
thou be, we be, he be, thou wert, we were. 

Be thou, be, to be, being, to have been, if I be, be ye, been, 
having been, if we be, if they be, to be. 

[3. In the following sentences, parse the ivords in order ; thus, " Snow ™ 
is a noun, neuter, the nominative singular, because the subject of "is." 
"is" is a verb attributive irregular; am, being, was, been ; in the present, 
indicative, third person, singular. " White " is an adjective, qualifies snow ; 
compared, white, whiter, whitest.'] 

Snow is white ; he was a good man ; we have been younger ; 
she has been happy ; it had been late ; we are old ; you will be 
wise ; it will be time ; if they be thine ; be cautious ; be heedful 
youth ; we may be rich. 



LESSON 24.-The Terb TO LOVE. 

274. The regular verb To Love, in the common 
form, is inflected through all its moods and tenses, as 
follows : 



56 THE VERB TO LOVE. 

ACTIVE "VOICE. 
Princijml farts. 

Present, love. Present Part., loving. Past, loved. Past Part., loved. 

Indicative Mood. 

PRESENT TENSE * 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I love. 1. We love. 

2. Thou lovest. 2. You love. 

3. He loves (ar loveth). 3. They love. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSK 

Sign, have. 

1. I have loved. 1. We have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved. 2. You have loved. 

3. He has or hath loved. 3. They have loved. 

PAST TENSE, f 

1. I loved. 1. We loved. 

2. Thou lovedst. 2. You loved. 

3. He loved. 3. They loved. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Sign, 'had. 

1. I had loved. 1. We had loved. 

2. Thou hadst loved. 2. You had loved. 

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Signs, shall, will. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall love. 1. We shall love. 

2. Thou shalt love. 2. You shall love. 

3. He shall love. 3. They shall love. 

* present tense. (Emphatic farm.) 

1. I do love. 1. We do love. 

2. Thou dost love. 2. You do love. 

3. He does or doth love. 3. They do love. 

t past tense. {Emphatic form.) 

1. I did love. 1. We did love. 

2. Thou didst love. 2. You did love. 

3. He did love. 3. They did love. 



THE VEEB TO LOVE. 57 

FUTUEE-PEEFECT TENSE. 
Signs, shall have, will have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 

2. Thou slialt have loved 2. You shall have loved. 
8. He shall have loved. 3. They shall have loved. 

Potential Mood. 

/ PRESENT TENSE. 

Signs, may, can, must: — Inflect with each. 

1. I may love. 1. We may love. 

2. Thou mayst love. 2. You may love. 

3. He may love. 3. They may love. 

PEESENT-PEEFECT TENSE. 
Signs, may have, can have* must have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I may have loved. 1. We may have loved. 

2. Thou mayst have loved. 2. You may have loved. 

3. He may have loved. 3. They may have loved. 

PAST TENSE. 
Signs, might, could, would, should. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might love. 1. We might love. 

2. Thou mightst love. 2. You might love. 

3. He might love. 3. They might love. 

PAST-PEEFECT TFNSE. 

Signs, might have, could have, would have, should have. — Inflect 
with each. 

1. I might have loved. 1. We might have loved. 

2. Thou mightst have loved. 2. You might have loved. 

3. He might have loved. 3. They might have loved. 

* Can have is not used in affirmative sentences. 



58 THE VERB TO LOVE. 

Subjunctive Mood.* 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

l.Ifl love. 1, If we love. 

2. If thou love. 2. If you love. 

3. If he love, 3. If they love. 

Imperative Mood. 

Singular. Plural. 

Common form. 2. Love, or love thou. 2. Love, or love ye or you, 
Emphatic form. 2. Do thou love. 2. Do ye or you love. 

Infinitive Mood. 
Present, To love. Perfect, to have loved. 

Participial Mood, (or Participles.) 
Present, Loving. Past, Loved. Perfect, Having loved. 

Parsing. 

275. A verb is parsed by stating its hind (i. e., 
whether transitive, intransitive, or attributive) ; its 
form, (whether regular or irregular) ; conjugating 
it, and telling in what tense, mood, voice, num- 
ber and person, it is found ; also its subject ; thus. 

" He loves us." Loves is a verb, transitive, regular ; love, loving, 
loved, loved ; found in the present, indicative, active ; third per- 
son, singular ; and affirms of its subject, Tie. 

N.B.— It is important in parsing to state every thing belonging to a word in 
as few words as possible, and always in the same order. 

* The present subjunctive or elliptical form, is used when both contin- 
gency and futurity are implied ; the indicative is used when contingency 
only, and not futurity is implied. In parsing, the latter may be called the 
"indicative used subjunctively, 1 ' being the indicative mood in form, and ren- 
dered subjunctive only by the conjunction prefixed. This is true also of 
the other tenses in this mood. 

The emphatic forms of the present subjunctive are, If I do love, if thou 
do love, if he do love, etc. ; of the past, If I did love, if thou didst love, etc., 
as in the indicative. 



EXERCISES ON THE VERB. 59 

QUESTIONS.— What is the conjugation of a verb? How is a verb 
conjugated ? Conjugate the verb love in the active voice. Say the in- 
dicative-present— past— future— the present-perfect— the past-perfect— future- 
perfect. Say the first person singular in each tense— the second— the 
third— the first person plural— the second— the third. Say the emphatic 
form, in the present— in the past. What are the signs (or auxiliaries) of the 
present-perfect ?— the past-perfect ?— the future ?— the future-perfect ?— the 
subjunctive present ? etc. What is the sign of the infinitive ? Name the 
participles. 

EXERCISE I. 

[1. Go over the following Exercise, and tell the tense, mood, and voice 

of each verb; thus, ''He loves," present, indicative, active. 

2. Go over it again, and tell the person and number ; thus, loves, third 
person, singular. 

3. Go over it again, and join these together ; and so tell the tense, mood, 
voice, number, and person ; and always in this order ; as, loves, present, indi- 
cative, active, third person, singular.*] 

[N.B.— The pronoun is no part of the verb, but helps to show its person and 
number ; and the auxiliaries (or signs) are not taken separately, but always 
with the verb ; so that the two words, and sometimes three, as in the past- 
perfect potential, are parsed together as one word ; thus, have loved, the 
present-perfect, indicative, active. 

*** This Exercise should be repeated till the pupil can do it correctly, 
rapidly, and easily, and without missing, either in the number or order of the 
things to be stated.] 

He loves, tliey love, I liave loved, you will love, thou teacliest, 
tliey will learn, lie has written, I had given, James will go, John 
may come, he might read, they would have studied, they did 

study. — Write thou, come ye. To love, to sing, to have played, 

reading, sleeping, running, loved, learned, having loved, having 
gone, birds fly, horses galloped, the fire burns, the sun did shine, 
the moon has changed. 

[N.B.— Pupils may be required to write out exercises of this kind for 
themselves, and parse them as directed above.] 

EXERCISE II. 

[Before beginning this Exercise, let the pupil go back and review thor- 
oughly Lesson 16, and the exercises on it ; then - 

*In the imperative, omit the tense, and say thus, love thou, imperative, 
active, second person, singular. 

In the infinitive, omit the person and number, and say thus, To love ; pres- 
ent, infinitive, active. 

In the participle, name only the tenso and voice ; thus, loving ; present 

participle, active. 



60 EXERCISES OK THE VERB. 

1. Tell which words are verbs, and why ; and whether transitive, in- 
transitive, or attributive, and why. 

2. Tell their tense, mood, voice, person, and number, as in the preceding 
Exercise. 

3. Go over it again, and parse each verb by putting all these together; 

thus, loves, is a verb, transitive, regular, in the present, indicative, active third 
person, singular.] 

He loves us, I will love him. Good boys will study their les- 
sons. Children love play. The dog killed my rabbit. 

James has written a letter. Cows eat hay. A fire warms 

the room. Bring some wood. 1 have studied grammar. 

Girls may write letters. Your sister can sing. He would 

like to hear a song. Give that book to me. 1 will give this 

book to you. Lend me your pen. Children should obey 

their parents ; they should love God. Bemember the Sabbath 

day, to keep it. All men must die. Time waits for no man. 

— — Do good to all men. John will mend my pen ; I will thank 

him. — —You would oblige me by assisting me to learn this lesson. 

Tell Henry to shut the door. Snow is white.- The 

apple tastes sweet. Washington was a wise and just man. 

" And he opened his mouth, and taught them, saying, Blessed 

are the poor in spirit : for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. 

Blessed are they that mourn : for they shall be comforted. 

Blessed are the meek : for they shall inherit the earth. Blessed 

are they which do hunger and thirst after righteousness : for they 
shaH be filled." 

EXERCISE III 
1. THE KOMI^ATIVE CASE. 

276. A verb in the active voice tells what some person or 
thing does. That person or thing then is its subject, and, in 
the indicative, potential, subjunctive, and imperative moods, is 
always in the nominative case ; thus, in the first sentence of the 
preceding Exercise, the word " loves," tells what "he" does ; he, 
therefore, is its subject, and is in the nominative case. 

[Point out the verb in each sentence of the preceding Exercise ; tell what 
word is its subject, and why ? What case is the subject in ?] 

2. THE OBJECTIVE CASE. 

277. A transitive verb in the active voice tells what Us sub- 
ject does to some person or thing. That person or thing is the 



NEGATIVE FORM. 61 

object of the verb, and is in the objective case. Thus, in the 
above sentence, "He loves us," loves is a transitive verb, and tells 
what its subject, he, does to us. Us, then, is its object, and is in 
the objective case 

The subject is usually before the verb ; the objective case 
generally follows it. 

EXERCISE IY.« 

Parsing. 

[Go over the preceding Exercise, and parse each word in order ; — the 
nouns as directed, (88) ; the articles as directed, (101) ;-— the adjectives as 
directed, (126) ; the pronouns as directed, (147) ; and the 'verbs as directed, 



LESSON 25.— Negative Form. 

27 8. The verb is made to deny by placing the word not 
after the simple form : as, " Thou lovest not ;" and between the 
auxiliary and the verb in the compound form ; as, " I do not 
love." When two auxiliaries are used, not is placed between 
them ; as, I would not have loved. 

279. In the infinitive and participles, the negative is 

put first ; as, Not to love ; not loving. 

280. The simple form is seldom used with the negative. In 
the present and the past tense, the compound or emphatic 
form, is more common. The following synopsis will show the 
manner of using the negative. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 1. 1 do not love. 2. Thou dost not love, etc. 

Pres. Perf. 1. I have not loved. 2. Thou hast not loved, etc. 

Past. 1. I did not love. 2. Thou didst not love, etc. 

Past Perf. 1. I had not loved. 2. Thou hadst not loved, etc. 

Future. 1. I will not love. 2. Thou wilt not love, etc. 

Fut. Perf. 1. I shall not have 2. Thou shalt not have loved, etc. 
loved. 



62 INTERROGATIVE FORM. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present. 1. I can not love. 2. Thou canst not love, etc. 
Pres. Perf. 1. I may not have 2. Thou mayst not have loved, 

loved. etc. 

Past. 1. I might not love. 2. Thou mightst not love, etc. 

Past Perf. 1. I might not have 2. Thou mightst not have loved, 

loved. etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present. 1. If I do not love. 2. If thou do not love, etc. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Sing. 2. Love not, or do not thou Plur. 2. Love not, or do not ye 
love. love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. Not to love. Perf. Not to' have loved. 

PARTICIPIAL MOOD. 

Present. Not loving. (Past. Not loved.) 

Perf. Not having loved. 



LESSON 26.— Interrogative Form. 

281* The verb is made to ask a question by placing the 
subject after the simple form ; as, Lovest thou ? and between the 
auxiliary and the verb in the compound forms ; as, Do I love ? 
When there are two auxiliaries the subject is placed between 
them ; as, Shall I have loved ? 

282. The subjunctive, imperative, and infinitive 

moods, and the participles, can not have the interrogative 
forms. 

283. The simple form of the verb is seldom used interroga- 
tively. The following synopsis will show how the verb is put 
into the interrogative form. 



ISTTERKOGATIV-E FORM. 63 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 1. Do I love ? 2. Dost thou love ? etc. 

Pres. Pebf. 1. Have I Joved? 2. Hast thou loved ? etc. 

Past. 1. Did I love? 2. Didst thou love ? etc. 

Past Peep. 1. Had I loved? 2. Hadst thou loved? etc. 

Future. 1. Shall I love? 2. Wilt thou love ? etc. 

Fut. Perp. 1. Shall I have loved? 2. Wilt thou have loved ? etc. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present. 1. May I love ? 2. Canst thou love ? etc. 

Pres. Perp. 1. May I have loved ? 2. Canst thou have loved ? etc. 
Past. 1. Might I love ? 2. Couldst thou love ? etc. 

Past Perp. 1. Might I have 2. Couldst thou have loved ? 

loved ? etc. 

284, Obs. Interrogative sentences are made negative 
by placing the negative either before or after the nominative ; as, 
Do I not love ? Do not I love ? 

QUESTIONS.— How is a verb made negative f Where is the negative 
placed in the simple form ? Where, in the compound form ? Where, 

when there are two auxiliaries ? Where, in the infinitive and participles ? 
Say the indicative present in the negative form throughout ;— the other tenses. 
How is the verb made interrogative ? Where is the nominative placed in 
the simple form? Where, in the compound form ? Where, when there 
are two auxiliaries ? What parts of the verb can not be used interroga- 
tively ? Say the indicative present throughout, interrogatively ? Say the 
other tenses. 

EXERCISES. 

[1. Put the verb, in the following sentences, into the negative form. 

2. Put the verb, in the following sentences, into the interrogative form, 
and write out the exercise. 

3. Distinguish the different parts of speech, and parse them, as in the pre- 
ceding Exercise, IY. (277.)] 

I love you. You loved me. James studies grammar. 

Your father has come. He will go soon. The ship foundered 

at sea. John would eat apples. Apples will grow on this 

tree. The horse will run a race. The fox had caught the 

goose. — — Eabbits eat clover. Study overcomes most difficul- 
ties. Labor promotes health. Wealth makes the man. 



64 PROGRESSIVE JORM. 

Poverty scatters friends. The ships sail. The sun has set. 

The moon rose. The stars will shine. 

N.B.— Let the pupils write similar exercises for themselves, and parse 
them. 



LESSON 2 7 .—Progressive Form. 
Active Voice. 

285. The Progressive form of the verb is 
inflected by prefixing the verb to he, through all its 
moods and tenses, to the present participle ; thus, 

Present. 1. I am writing. 2. Thou art writing, etc. 

Pres. Perf. 1. 1 have been writing. 2. Thou hast been writing, 

etc. 
Past. 1. I was writing. 2. Thou wast writing, etc. 

Past Perf. 1. I had been writing. 2. Thou hadst been writing, 

etc. 
Future. 1. I shall be writing. 2. Thou shalt be writing, etc. 
Fut. Perf. 1. I shall or will have 2. Thou shalt or wilt have 
been writing. • been writing, etc. 

[In this manner go through the other moods and tenses.] 

286, Note. Verbs which, in the common form imply coil- 
tinuance, do not usually admit the progressive form ; thus, " I 
am loving," (if proper) would mean nothing more than, " I love." 

EXERCISES. 

[Change the following verbs from the simple into the progressive form :] 

He writes, they read, thou teachest, we have learned, he had 

written, they go, you will build, I ran, John has done it, we 

taught, he stands, he stood, they will stand, they may read, we 

can sew, you should study, we might have read. 

[Change the following, from the progressive into the simple form :] 
We are writing, they w r ere singing, they have been riding, we 
might be walking, I may have been sleeping, they are coming, 
thou art teaching, they have been eating, he has been moving, we 
have been defending, they had been running. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 65 

[3, Parse the above verbs in the progressive form ; thus, " We are writing ; " 
" are writing" is a verb, trans,, irreg. ; write, writing, wrote, written ; (286) 
in the present, indicative, active, first person, plural, progressive form.] 



LESSON 28.— Passive Voice. 

287. The Passive Voice is inflected by adding 
the past participle passive to the auxiliary verb to 
be, through all its moods and tenses ; thus, 

Present. Present Part. Past. Past Part 

Am loved. Being loved. Was loved. Loved.* 

Indicative Mood. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved. 1. We are loved. 

2. Thou art loved. 2. You are loved. 

3. He is loved. 3. They are loved. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 
' Sign, Jiave. 

1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been loved. 2. You have been loved 

3. He has been loved. 3. They have been loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I was loved. 1. We were loved. 

2. Thou wast loved. 2. You were loved. 

3. He was loved. 3. They were loved. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Sign, had. - 

1. I had been loved. 1. We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. You had been loved. 

3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. 

* The past participle is used by itself in a passive sense without an 
auxiliary. [See Appendix II.] 



66 PASSIVE VOICE. 

FUTURE TEXSE. 
Signs, shall, will. — Inflect with each. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall be loved. 1. We shall be loved. 

2. Thou shalt be loved. 2. You shall be loved. 

3. He shall be loved. 3. They shall be loved. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
Signs, shall have, will have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved. 

2. Thou shalt have been loved. 2. You shall have been loved. 

3. He shall have been loved. 3. They shall have been loved. 

Potential Mood. 

PRESENT TEJSTSE. 
Signs, may, can, must. — Inflect with each. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be loved. 1. We may be loved. 

2. Thou mayst be loved. 2. You may be loved. 

3. He may be loved. 3. They may be loved. 

PRESENT-PERFECT „ TENSE. 
Signs, map have, can have, must have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I may have been loved. 1. We may have been loved. 

2. Thou mayst have been loved. 2. Yon may have been loved. 

3. He may have been loved. 3. They may have been loved. 

PAST TENSE. 
Signs, might, could, would, should. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might be loved. 1. We might be loved. 

2. Thou mightst be loved. 2. You might be loved. 

3. He might be loved. 3. They might be loved. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, might have, could have, ivoidd have, should have. — Inflect 

with each. 

1. I might have been loved. 1. We might have been loved. 

2. Thou mightst have been loved. 2. You might have been loved. 

3. He might have been loved. 3. They might have been loved. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 67 

Subjunctive Mood. 

PRESENT TEK"SE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be loved. 1. If we be loved. 

2. If thou be loved. 2. If you be loved. 

3. If he be loved. 3. If they be loved. 

PAST TE2TSE.* 

1. i^ I were loved. 1. If we were loved. 
If thou were or wert loved. 2. ijf you were loved. 

3. If he were loved. 3. If they were loved. 

Imperative Mood. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Be thou loved. 2. Be ye or you. loved. 

Infinitive Mood. ■ 
Present. To be loved. Perf. To have been loved. 

Participial Mood. 

Present. Being loved. Past. Loved. 

Perfect. Having been loved. 

EXERCISE I 
O^T THE PASSIVE VOICE. 

[1. Tell the tense, mxx>d, person, and number of the following words in the 
passive voice ;— change them into the active form. 

2. Go over the exercise again, and parse each word in order; thus, "They" 
is a pronoun of the third person, masculine (or feminine), in the nominative 
plural, the subject of are loved ; " are loved." is a verb, transitive, in the 
present, indicative, passive, third person, plural, because its subject, " they" 
is third person, plural.] 

They are loved ; we were loved ; thou art loved ; it is loved ; 
she was loved ; he has been loved ; you have been loved ; I have 
been loved ; thou hadst been loved ; we shall be loved ; thou wilt 
be loved ; they will be loved ; I shall have been loved ; you will 
have been loved. 

* All the tenses of the indicative and potential are used in conditional 
clauses with a conjunction prefixed, to express present contingency ; thus, If 
I am lore!, If I have teen loved. If I was loved. If I had been loved, If I 
shall or will be loved, If I shall have been loved, If 1 may be loved, etc. 



68 PASSIVE VOICE. 

He can be loved ; thou mayst be loved ; she must be loved 
they might be loved ; ye would be loved ; they should be loved 
I could be loved ; thou mayst have been loved ; it may have beei 
loved ; you might have been loved ; if I be loved ; if thou wer 
loved ; though we be loved ; though they be loved. Be thoi 
loved ; be ye loved ; you be loved. To be loved ; loved ; having 
been loved ; to have been loved ; being loved. 

[3. Change the preceding, from the passive to the active progressive 
form.] 

EXERCISE II 

Noun, Article 9 Adjective, Pronoun, Verb* 

[1. In the following Exercise, tell which words are articles— which an 
nouns— and why ;— which are adjectives— and why ;— which are pronouns- 
and why ;— which are verbs— and why. 

2. Point out the verbs ; tell whether transitive or intransitive— and why in- 
active or passive —and why. i 

3. Go over again, and point out the nouns, and tell whether proper or com 
mon— and why ; — singular or plural— and why ;— their gender— and why.] 

He has learned his lesson. 1 loved him because he was good, 

— — A good man will forgive those who may have injured him, 

Love your enemies; do good to them that hate you. 

Remember your Creator in the days of your youth. We are 

commanded to love our neighbor as ourselves. That book was 

printed in New York. The winter has been cold, but the 

ground was covered with snow. Columbus discovered America. 

America was discovered by Columbus. 1 have been studying 

grammar. It is never too late to learn that which is good and 

useful. Peter Parley has written some pleasing books. 

Good boys love reading. — — Study to understand what you read. 
A wise son maketh a glad father, but a foolish son is heavi- 
ness to his mother. 

[4. Go over the preceding Exercise, and parse each word in order, as 
heretofore directed.] 

*#* It will now he important to review thoroughly and repeatedly from 
Lesson 23, particularly Lessons 23, 26, and 28, with the Exercises under them. 
This will require several recitations. And while that is going on, the pupil 
may also go forward with Lesson 29, conjugating from memory the irregu- 
lar verbs, in such portions daily as the teacher may direct. 

[5. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain one of the fol- 
lowing irregular verbs. .Use all of the forms here given.] 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



69 



LESSON 29.— Irregular Verbs. 



288. Irregular Verbs are those that do not 
form their past tense and past participle by adding ed 
to the present ; as, Am, was, been. 

289. They may be conveniently divided into three classes : 

1. Those which have only one form for the three parts 
given ; viz. : 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Bet 


bet r* 


bet r 


Burst 


burst 


burst 


Cast 


cast 


cast 


Cost 


cost 


cost 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Knit 


knit r 


knit v 


Let 


let 


let 


Put 


put 


put 


Quit 


quit r 


quit V 


Eap 


V rapt 


r rapt 


Read 


read 


read 


Eid 


rid 


rid 


Set fre- 


set fre- 


set fre- 


Shed 


shed 


shed 


Shred 


shred 


shred 


Shut 


shut 


shut 


Slit 


slit 


slit, slitted 


Spit 


spit (spat, obsolete) 


spit 


Split 


split 


split 


Spread be- 


spread be- 


spread fre- 


Sweat 


V sweat 


V sweat 


Thrust 


thrust 


r thrust 


Wet 


r wet 


r wet 


Whet 


r whet 


r whet 



* Those verbs that are also conjugated regularly are marked with an r. 
When two forms are given, the first is most used. 



70 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



2. Those that have two forms 


for the parts given ; viz. : 


Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Abide 


abode 


abode 


Beat 


beat 


beaten, beat 


Bend 


bend r 


bent v 


Bereave 


V bereft 


v bereft 


Beseech 


besought 


besought 


Betide 


r betid 


V betid 


Bless 


r blest 


r blest 


Bind un- 


bound un- 


bound un- 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Breed 


bred 


bred 


Bring 


brought 


brought 


Build re- 


built re- v 


built re- r 


Burn 


T burnt 


r burnt 


Buy 


bought 


bought 


Catch 


caught v 


caught ,!• 


Cling 


clung 


clung 


Come be- 


came be- 


come be- 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Deal 


dealt r 


dealt r 


Dig 


dug v 


dug v 


Dream 


r dreamt 


T dreamt 


Dress 


v drest 


v drest 


Dwell 


dwelt v 


dwelt v 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Find 


found 


found 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Gild 


r gilt 


r gilt 


Gird be- en- 


v girt be- en- 


r girt be- en- 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Hang 


hung 


hung 


Have 


had 


had 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Hold be- with- 


held be- with- 


held, holden be- with- 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Kneel 


r knelt 


knelt r 



IEEEGTJLAE VEEBS. 



71 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle, 


Lay be- 


laid be- 


laid oe- 


Lead mis- 


led mis- 


led mis- 


Lean 


T leant 


v leant 


Leap 


. T leapt 


t leapt 


Learn 


T learnt 


T learnt 


Leave 


left 


left 


Lend 


lent 


lent 


Lie 


lied 


lied 


Light 


r lit 


T lit 


Lose 


lost 


lost 


Make 


made 


made 


Mean 


meant 


meant 


Meet 


met 


met 


Pass 


T past 


T past 


Pay re- 


paid re- 


paid re- 


Pen, to enclose 


T pent 


¥ pent 


Rend 


rent 


rent 


Ride 


rode 


rode, ridden 


Run 


ran 


run 


Say 


said 


said 


Seek 


sought 


sought 


Sell 


sold 


sold 


Send 


sent 


sent 


Shine 


shone v 


shone r 


Shoe 


shod 


shod 


Shoot 


shot 


shot 


Sit 


sat 


sat (sitten, obsolete) 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


Sling 


slung 


slung 


Slink 


slunk 


slunk 


Smell 


V smelt 


r smelt 


Speed 


sped 


sped 


Spell 


r spelt 


T spelt 


Spend mis- 


spent mis- 


spent mis- 


Spill 


T spilt 


" r spilt 


Spoil 


spoilt v 


T spoilt 


Stand with- etc. 


stood with- 


stood witJi- 


Stave 


7* stove 


r stove 


Stay 


v staid 


v staid 



72 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Present* 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck 


Sting 


stung 


stung 


Strike 


struck 


'struck, stricken 


String 


strung 


strung 


Sweep 


swept 


swept 


Swing 


swung 


swung 


. Teach mis- 


taught mis- 


taught mis- 


Tell 


told 


told 


Think be- 


thought be- 


thought be- 


Weep 


wept 


wept 


Win 


won 


won 


Wind 


wound r 


wound r 


Work 


wrought T 


wrought v 


Wring 


v wrung 


wrung r 


3. Those which have three forms for the parts given ; viz 


Am 


was 


been , 


Arise 


arose 


arisen 


Awake 


awoke r 


awaked 


Bake 


baked 


T baken 


Bear, to bring forth bare, bore 


born 


Bear for- 


bore, barejfcr- 


borne for- 


Begin 


began 


begun 


Bid 


bade, bid 


bidden, bid 


Bite 


bit 


bitten, bit 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Break 


broke, brake 


broken, broke 


Chide 


chid 


chidden, chid 


Choose 


chose 


chosen 


Cleave, to adhere 


r clave 


cleaved 


Cleave, to split 


clove, cleft 


cloven, cleft 


Clothe 


clothed, clad 


r clad 


Crow 


r crew 


crowed 


Dare, to venture 


v durst 


dared 


Dive 


v dove 


dived 


Do mis- un~ 


did mis- un- 


done mis- un- 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Drink 


drank 


drunk 


Drive 


drove 


driven 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



73 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Eat 


ate, eat 


eaten 


Fall be- 


Mlbe- 


fallen be- 


Fly 


flew 


flowh 


Forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


Forget 


forgot 


forgotten, forgot 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Freight 


freighted 


fraught V 


Get be- 


got, gat be- 


gotten, got be- 


Give for- mis- 


gave for- mis- 


given for- mis- 


Go 


went 


gone 


Grave en- 


graved en- 


v graven en- 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Heave 


r hove 


r hoven 


Hew 


hewed 


v hewn 


Hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


Know 


knew 


known 


Lade 


laded 


laden 


Lie to lie down 


lay 


lain 


Load 


loaded 


r laden 


Mow 


mowed 


V mown 


Ring 


rang, rung 


rung 


Rise a- 


rose a- 


risen a- 


Rive 


rived 


V riven 


Saw 


sawed 


v sawn 


See 


saw 


seen 


Seethe 


v sod 


V sodden 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Shape mis- 


shaped mis- 


V shapen mis- 


Shave 


shaved 


V shaven 


Shear 


v shore 


shorn 


Show 


showed 


v shown 


Shrink 


shrunk, shrank 


shrunk, shrunken 


Sing 


sung, sang 


sung 


Sink 


sunk, sank 


sunk 


Slay 


slew 


slain 


Slide 


slid r 


slidden, slid v 


Sling 


slung, slang 


slung 


Smite 


smote 


smitten, smit 



n 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Present. 

Sow 

Speak be- 

Spin 

Spring 

Steal 

Stride be- 

Strive 

Strow be- 

Swear 

Swell 

Swim 

Take be- under- 

Tear 

Thrive 

Throw 

Tread 

Wax 

Wear 

Weave 

Write 



Past. 

sowed 

spoke, spake be- 

spun, span 

sprung, sprang 

stole 

strode, strid be- 
V strove 

strowed be- 

swore, sware 

swelled 

swum, swam 

took be- wider- 
tore (tare, obsolete) 
v throve 

threw v 

trod, (trode, obs) 

waxed 

wore 

wove 

wrote (writ, obs.) 



Past Participle. 

sown r 

spoken be- 

spun 

sprung 

stolen 

stridden, strid be- 

striven 
r strown be- 

sworn 
v swollen 

swum 

taken be- under- 

torn 
r thriven 

thrown v 

trodden, trod 
v waxen 

worn 

woven 

written (writ, obs.) 



QUESTIONS.— -What are irregular verbs? Into how many classes 
may they be divided ? What are they ? Are any verbs both regular and 
irregular? Give an example. Since- there is no list of regular. verbs, 
how may we know what verbs are. regular? Is u aw" regular or irregular 
—and why ? 

EXERCISE I. 

[1. Name the present and past tenses, indicative mood, and the 
present and past participles of the following verbs; thus, Take, took, 
taken. 

2. Write a short sentence on the slate or blackboard, with each verb, in 
the present tense— in the perfect tense— in the past tense— in any tense; 
thus, We take breakfast early. John took my hat. I have taken his coat.] 

Take, drive, creep, begin, abide, buy, bring, arise, catch, 
bereave, am, burst, draw, drink, fly, flee, fall, get, give, go, 
feel, forsake, grow, have, hear, hide, keep, know, lose, pay, 
ride, ring, shake, run, seek, sell, see, sit, slay, slide, smite, 
speak, stand, tell, win, write. 

[3. In the sentences made as directed No. 2, tell which verbs are transi- 
tive, and which are intransitive — and why. Point out the subject in 
each sentence, that is, the person or thing spoken of, and parsed in the 



DEFECTIVE A^D IMPERSONAL VERBS. 75 

nominative. Tell which nouns or pronouns are in the nominative— and 
why;— in the objective— and why. 

4. In each sentence, put the verb in the emphatic form— in the progres- 
sive form — in the negative form— in the interrogative form — in the 
negative-interrogative form.] 

EXERCISE II 

[1. In the following Exercise, point out which verbs are regular, and 
which are irregular — and why. 

2. Write short sentences with each verb, as in the preceding Exercise, 
and do with each as there directed, in Nos. 2, 3, 4.] 

Love, hope, trust, weep, throw, keep, brush, hunt, count, 
reckon, ask, sleep, eat, drink, spin, save, go, teach, wipe, am, 
draw, bruise, water, know, wash, spoil. 

[3. Take the sentences containing transitive verbs, and express the 
same idea by the passive form; thus, suppose the sentence to be, "James 
loves praise ;" passive form, " Praise is loved by James." 

4. Parse the sentences so changed.] 



LESSON 30.— Defective and Impersonal Verbs. 

290. Defective verbs are those in which some 
of the parts are wanting. They are irregular? 
and chiefly auxiliary. These are,— 

Present. Past. Past Part Present. Past. Past Part. 

Can could Sliall should 

May might Will would 

Must Wis wist 

Ought ought Wit or) wQt 

Quoth quoth Wot ) 

Imperative, — Beware. 

291. Impersonal verbs are those which assert 
the existence of some action or state, but refer it to 
no particular subject. They are preceded by the 
pronoun it 9 and are always in the third person singu- 
lar ; as, it seems ; it becomes, etc. 



76 ADVERBS. 

202* To this head may be referred such expressions as, It 
hails, it snows, it rains, it thunders, it behooveth, it irkcth , and 
perhaps also, methinks, methought, meseems, meseemed, in which, 
instead of it, the first personal pronoun in the objective case, me, 
is prefixed to the third person singular of the verb. 

QUESTIONS.— What is a defective verb ? Are they regular or irregu- 
lar ? What are they ? What tenses do the most of them have ? What 
tense has must?— ought? Is it proper to say "I had ought to read?" 
Why ? What is an impersonal verb ? By what are they preceded ? Ip 
what person and number are they? What other word besides "it" is 
sometimes put before impersonal verbs ? 



LESSON 31- Adverbs. 

[Review the preceding Lesso7i.~\ 

293. An Adverb is a word used to modify a 
verb, an adjective, or another adverb, or to de- 
note some circumstance respecting it ; as, Ann speaks 
distinctly: she is remarkably diligent, and reads very 
correctly. [Appendix IV, 6.] 

294:. Adverbs have been divided into various classes, accord- 
ing to their signification. The. chief of these are such as denote, 

I. Quality or Manner simply ; as, well, ill, bravely, pru- 
dently, softly, with very many others, formed from adjectives by 
adding ly, or changing le into ly; thus, tame, tamely; sensible, 
sensibly, etc. 

2. Place ; as, here, there, where ; hither, thither ; hence. 

3. Time ; as, now, then, when ; soon, often, seldom ; ever. 

4. Direction ; as, upward, downward, backward, forward. 

5. Affirmation ; as, verily, truly, undoubtedly, yea, yes. 

6. Negation ; as, nay, no, not, nowise, never. 

7. Interrogation ; as, how, why, when, wherefore. 

8. Comparison ; as, more, most ; less, least ; as, so, thus. 

9. Quantity ; as, much, little, enough, sufficiently 
10. Order ; as, first, secondly, thirdly. 

II. Uncertainty ; as, perhaps, per adventure, perchance. 
12. Conjunctive Adverbs ; as, when, where, how, while. 



ADVEKBS. 77 

Observations. 

295. The chief use of adverbs is to shorten discourse, by 
expressing in one word what would otherwise require two or 
more , as, here, for "in this place ;" nobly, "in a noble manner." 

296. Some adverbs admit of comparison, like adjectives ; 
as, soon, sooner, soonest; nobly, more nobly, most nobly. A few 
are compared irregularly ; as, well, better, best ; badly, or ill, 
worse, worst. 

297. Some words become adverbs by prefixing a, which sig- 
nifies at, or on ; as, abed, ashore, afloat, aground, apart. 

298. In comparisons, the antecedents as and so are usually 
reckoned adverbs , the corresponding as and so are adverbs also ; 
thus, It is as high as Heaven. t 

299. Circumstances of time, place, manner, etc., are often 
expressed by two or more words constituting an adverbial 
plirase ; as, in short, in fine, in general, at most, at least, at 
length, not at all, by no means, in vain, in order, long ago, by and 
by, to and fro, which may be parsed together as adverbs, or by 
supplying the ellipsis , thus, in a short space ; in a general way. 

300. A Conjunctive Adverb is one that modifies two 
different words, and connects the clauses to which they belong; 
as, " I will see you when you come," " He is happy where he is." ! 

301. There, commonly an adverb of place, is often used as 
an introductory eocpletive to the verbs to be, to come, to appear, 
etc. ; as, "There is no chance." "There are five boys here." 2 

Pabsikg. 

302. An adverb is parsed by stating its class, and 
the word which it modifies ; thus, 

" Ann speaks distinctly." Distinctly is an adverb of manner, 
and modifies " speaks." 

QUESTIONS.— What is an adverb? In the sentence, "Ann speaks 
distinctly," which is the adverb ? Why ? Into how many classes are 
adverbs commonly divided ? Name the first three— the second three— the 
next three— the last three. How are adverbs formed from adjectives? 
What is the chief use of adverbs? How are adverbs compared like 

adjectives ? Give an example. Are any compared irregularly ? Give 

A. & P, Gr.- 1 534. ^529. 



78 PREPOSITIONS. 

an example. What is an adverbial phrase? Give examples. How 
are such phrases to be parsed ? For what do conjunctive adverbs stand ? 
How is there used ? How are adverbs parsed ? 

EXERCISE I 

[1. In the following list of adverbs, point out the class to which each 

belongs. 

. 2. Compare those that admit of comparison. 

3. Write a number of short sentences, each of which shall contain one 
or more of the adverbs in the following list ; and parse the sentences.] 

Here, there, softly, boldly, wisely, seldom, upward, once, twice, 
hitherto, yesterday, how, more, little, secondly, enough, perhaps, 
yes, no, truly, not, already, hence, whence, better, sufficiently, 
wisely, somewhere. 

EXERCISE II 

[1. In the following sentences, tell what words are articles—what words 
are nouns, and why — adjectives, and why— pronouns, and why— verbs, and 
why— whether transitive or intrans., and why— regular or irregular, and why. 
2. Which words are adverbs ?— why ? What do they modify ? Parse.] 

Peter wept bitterly. He is here now. She went away 

yesterday. They came to-day. They will perhaps buy some 

to-morrow. Ye shall know hereafter. She sang sweetly. 

Cats soon learn to catch mice. Mary rose up hastily. 

■ They that have enough may soundly sleep. Cain wicked- 
ly slew his brother. 1 saw him long ago. He is a very good 

man. Sooner or later all must die. You read too little. 

They talk too much. 



LESSON 3 2.— Prepositions. 

303. A Preposition is a word which shotvs 
the relation between a noun or a pronoun following 
it and some other word in the sentence ; as, 

" The book is upon the table." " The book is under the table." 
"They speak concerning virtue." [Appendix IV, 7.J 

304, In these sentences, the prepositions, "upon" and 
" under" show the relation between " table " and " book :" and 
"concerning" shows the relation between u virtue " and "speak." 



PRBPOSITIOSTS. 



79 



305. Note. — A preposition may be followed by an infinitive mood, a 
phrase, or a clause, used as a substantive 1 instead of a noun or pronoun ; 
as, " We are about to depart:" 1 —" Honored for having done his duty:'— "The 
crime of being a young man" 

306. The principal words of this class are contained in the 
following — 

List of Prepositions. 



About 


Below 


From 


Through 


Above 


Beneath 


In 


Throughout 


Across 


Beside ) 
Besides ) 


Into 


Till 


After 


Notwithstanding 


To 


Against 


Between 


Of 


Touching 


Along 


Betwixt 


Off 


Toward ) 


Amid ) 
Amidst ) 


Beyond 


On 


Towards ) 


But 


Out of 


Under 


Among ) 
Amongst ) 


By 


Over 


Underneath 


Concerning 


Past 


Until 


Around 


Down 


Pending 


Unto 


At 


During 


Regarding 


Up 


Athwart 


Ere 


Respecting 


Upon 


Bating 


Except 


Round 


With 


Before . 


Excepting 


Save 


Within 


Behind 


For 


Since 


Without 



Observations on Prepositions. 

307 • Every preposition requires the noun or pronoun, which 
is its object after it 9 to be in the objective case ; as, I gave 
the paper to Mm. When any word in the preceding list is not 
followed by an objective case, it is generally an adverb ; as, 
He rides about. 

308. But, in such phrases as cast np 9 hold out, fall on, 
the words up, out, on, may be considsred as a part of the verb, 
rather than as prepositions or adverbs. 

309. 1. Of the words related, that before the preposition is 
called the antecedent term of the relation; and that which 
follows it is called the subsequent term, or the regimen of 
the preposition. The preposition and its regimen together con- 
stitute a prepositional phrase. {335.) 



A. & P. Gi\— J 540. 



80 PREPOSITIONS. 

2. The antecedent term is always limited by tlie preposi- 
tional phrase, which is in character, adjective or adverbial, 
according as the antecedent is a substantive or some other 
word ; ! as, He walks with great rapidity. It is a work of much 
merit. There was another large of understanding. 

Note.— For a fuller discussion of prepositions, their uses and classification, 
' see A. & P. Gr. 538-554. 

Parsing. 

310. The preposition is parsed by stating what 
part of speech it is, and the words between which 
it shows the relation; thus, 

"Before honor is humility. " "Before" is a preposition, and 
shows the relation between " honor " and " humility." 

QUESTIONS.— What is a preposition? In what case is 'the noun or 
pronoun, after a preposition ? When an objective does not follow a prepo- 
sition, what part of speech is it to be considered? What is the related 
word before the preposition called ?— the one after it ? 

EXERCISES. 

[1. Point out the prepositions in the following exercises. 

2. Point out the noun or pronoun after the preposition, and the word to 
which it is related ; thus, " I went from Albany to New York. 1 " The prepo- 
sition from, stands before Albany, and shows its relation to the verb, 
"went." So, also, Co stands before New York, and shows its relation to 
" went ."I 

I went from London to Bath. The king walked about the 

garden with his son. They dined without me. 1 fell off a 

ship into the river near (to) the bridge. This box of wafers 

is for you. Charles put it upon the table against the ink- 
stand.— — Turn down the lane through the gate. 1 shall go 

up the road after him. Run to that tree near the house. It 

stands between the trees. Put it on the table at the side of 

the house. 1 found the knife among the ashes under the 

grate.-- — Sit by me.- John is at school. They all went 

except me. 

[3. Parse the words in preceding Exercises.] 
A. & P. Gr.— 1 506, 2. 



COSTJUJSXTIOm 81 



LESSON 3 3 -Conjunctions. 

^* 

311. A Conjunction is a word which connects 

words, phrases, or sentences ; as, 

"You and I must study; but he may go and play." "Two 
and two make four/' 

*#* Conjunctions sometimes begin sentences ; for example, see 
the first chapter of Genesis. 

312. Conjunctions are of two classes: Copula- 
tive and Disjunctive. [Appekdix IV, §.] 

313. A copulative conjunction unites the meaning of the 
teims which it connects. There are two kinds — 

1. Connective, which simply connects the meaning of two 
united sentences ; as, " The sun shines, and the day is warm." 

2. Continuative, which add on a limiting clause, and ex- 
tend the sense of the principal ; as, " We wiU go, when my 
brother arrives. " 

Note. — The latter generally introduce and connect a subordinate clause, 
which limits the principal clause, or some part thereof. 

314. A disjunctive conjunction is one which, while it joins 
two sentences together, disconnects their meaning. There are 
two kinds of disjunctives — 

1. Distributive, which simply disconnect, or distribute, the 
meaning of the united sentences ; as, " You may go, or you may 
stay." 

2. Adversative, which contrast the meaning of united sen- 
tences ; as, " He will go, but I will stay." 

A List of Conjunctions. 

Also, and, because, both, for/ if, since, that, then, 
therefore, wherefore, although, as, as well as, but, either, 
except, lest, neither, nor, notwithstanding, or, pro- 
vided, so, than, though, unless, whether, yet, still. 

315. Obs. The copulative conjunctions connect things that 



82 CONJUNCTIONS. 

are to be taken together ; as, "You and I (i.e. both of us) must 
go." The disjunctive conjunctions connect things that are to be 
taken separately y or one to the exclusion of the rest ; as, " You or 
I (i. e. the one or the other, but not both) must go." * 

Note.— When conjunctions connect sentences, they do not connect in- 
dividual tvords in the sentence. When they connect words, the words 
connected must be of the same class,— if nouns, of the same case; if verbs, 
same mood and tense, and with the same subject ; if adjectives or ad- 
verbs, they must limit the same word 1 (526). 

Parsing. 

316. Conjunctions are parsed by stating to what 
class they belong, and the tvords, phrases, or 
sentences which they join together ; thus, 

"You and I must study." And is a conjunction, copulative, 
connective, and connects You and L 

QUESTIONS.— What is a conjunction? How many kinds of con- 
junctions are there ? What are the copulative ? How many classes ? 
Define each, and give an example. The disjunctive ? How are they dis- 
tinguished ? Give an example of each. How do these two classes differ ? 
How are conjunctions parsed ? 

EXEBCISES. 

[1. Point out the conjunctions in the following Exercise, the class to which 
each belongs, and the words or sentences which they connect. 
2. Parse all the words in order.] 

Henry and Charles read their lessons. 1 or he will be there. 

1 will be with you, unless you call. 1 slept well, though 

the dog barked. Read that you may learn. John says that 

he will do it. As he writes, so do I read ; for I am fond of 

reading. Neither the boys nor the girls are asleep. 1 would 

call if I could, but I can not Take care lest you fall. Two 

and two make four. He is better than I thought he was, 

though he behaved ill. Since that has happened, I must go. 

Do to others as you would that they should do to you. 

I study that I may improve. When the sky falls, we shall 

catch larks. If we study, we shall learn. Not only the 

men, but also the women were present. 

A. & P. Gr.— 1 573, 955. 



INTERJECTIONS. 83 



LESSON 3 4.— Interjections. 

317. An Interjection is a word used in exclama- 
tions, to express some emotion of the mind ; as, Oh ! 
what a sight is here ! Well done ! 

A List of Interjections. 

Adieu ! ah ! alas ! alack ! away ! aha ! begone ! 
hark ! ho ! ha ! he ! hail ! halloo I hum ! hush ! 
huzza ! hist ! heydey ! lo ! ! Oh ! strange ! 
braye ! pshaw ! see ! well-a-day ! etc. 

Observations on Interjections. 

318. The Interjection is thrown in among the other words in 
a sentence, but does not affect their construction. 

319. O is used to express wishing or exclamation, and 
should be prefixed only to a noun or a pronoun, in a direct 
address ; as, " Virtue ! how amiable thou art ! " Oh is used 
detached from the word, with a point of exclamation after it. It 
implies an emotion of pain, sorrow, or surprise ; as, " Oh ! what 
a sight is here." 

Pausing. 

320. Interjections are parsed by naming them as 
such, stating why, and the emotion expressed. 

QUESTIONS.— What is an Interjection? Name some of them. Does 
the interjection affect the construction of the other words in a sentence ? 
How do and Oh differ in meaning? How, in the manner of writing 
them? How are interjections parsed? 

EXERCISES.^ 

[1. Point out the Interjections in the Exercises. 
2. Name all the other parts of speech, and parse them.] 

Hah ! I am glad to see you. WeU a-day ! I did not expect 

this. Alas ! I am ruined. Indeed ! is that true ?-= — -What ! 



84 PARTS OF SPEECH. 

is it possible ? Lo ! there he is. Hem ! I do not think so, 

O what a benefit education is ! Ah ! you are a happy 

fellow. Hush! what was that? Ha! ha! ha! how laugh- 
able that is ! Ho ! come this way. Ah ! poor fellow, he is 

to be pitied. Hurrah 1 we have finished our lesson. Come ! 

now for the next. 



LESSON 35.— How to distinguish the Parts of 

Speech. 

821. The articles, pronouns, prepositions, con- 
junctions, and interjections, are so few in number, that 
they may be easily committed to memory. [Appendix IV, 9.~] 

322. The other four, namely, the noun, adjeciivc, verb, 
and adverb, will be best distinguished by comparing their 
meaning and use with the definitions of these parts of speech 
in their place ; thus, 

1. Every word that is the name of a person or thing, is a 
noun; because "A noun is the name of any person, place, 
or thing." 

2. A word that qualifies a noun by describing, limiting, or dis- 
tinguishing it, is an adjective ; because "An adjective is 
a word used to qualify a substantive." 

3. A word that expresses what a person or thing does, or is, or 
what is done to a person or thing, is a verb y because " A verb 
is a word used to express the act, being, or state of its subject." 

4. A word that modifies another by expressing a circumstance 
of time, place, manner, etc., is an adverb y because * An ad- 
verb," etc. {293.) 

323. The following technical metliod, though neither 
very accurate nor certain, may assist the young pupil in distin 
guishing these four parts of speech ; but the preceding should 
always be preferred. 

1. A word that makes sense after an article, or the phrase, "/ 
speak of," is a noun y as, A man; I speak of money. 



PAETS OF SPEECH. 85 

2. A word that makes sense before the word thing, is commonly 
an adjective ; as, A good thing ; an old thing. 

3. A verb makes sense with I, thou, he, or to before it ; as, I urite; 
he writes ; to teach. 

4. The answer to the question, How f When? Where f is gener- 
ally an adverb ; as, How do you do ? Very well. When did 
you arrive ? Yesterday. Where do you live ? I live here. 

Observations. 

324:* Many words are sometimes to be regarded as one part 
of speech, and sometimes as another, according to their mean- 
ing and use in the place where they are used ; thus, 

(Demonstrative Pronoun ; as, "Give me that book." 
That, •< Relative Pronoun ; as, " It is the same that I bought." 
( Conjunction ; as, " I am glad that you are come/' 

(Adverb ; as, "It is much better to give than to receive." 
Much, < Adjective ; as, "In much wisdom is much grief." 

\Noun ; as, " Where much is given, much is required." 

( Conjunction ; as, "Since we must part." 
Since, -j Preposition ; as, "Since that time." 

\ Adverb ; as, " Your friend has gone long since." 

( Conjunction ; as, " Poor but honest." 
But, •< Preposition ; as, " All but one." 

( Adverb; as, " He has but just enough." 



q ( Adjective ; as, " An only son." 

( Adverb ; as, " It is only evil." 



erb ; as, " It is only evil." 

%* Write additional sentences containing these words in the 
several senses indicated above. 

325. When the same word is in one place a preposition, 
and in another a conjunction 9 let it be remembered that the 
preposition is followed by an objective case ; the conjunction is 
not. For additional suggestions upon certain of the parts of 
speech, see Appendix III, and A. & P. Gr. — Appendix I. 

QUESTIONS. —How may we most readily distinguish articles, pro- 
nouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections ? How do you distin- 
guish the noun from other parts of speech ?— the adjective ?— the verb ?— the 
adverb ? 



86 PARSING. 

LESSON 3 6— Parsing. 

326. Parsing is the resolving of a sentence into 
its elements, or parts of speech. Words are parsed two 
ways : Etymologically and Syntactically. 

1. In Etymological parsing, the pupil is required to state 
the part of speech to which a word belongs; and to describe it by 
its accidents and uses. 

2. In Syntactical parsing, the pupil is required, besides 
parsing the word etymologically, to state its relation to 
other words in the sentence, and the rules by which these 
relations are governed. 

N. B. Before proceeding to Syntax, the pupil should be expert 
in etymological parsing. This he can hardly fail to be, if he has 
attended, in the manner directed, to the exercises already given. 
Lessons from the reading book, or sentences from any plain 
writer, may now be analyzed and parsed, as already directed. 
To assist further in this, observe the following 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 

327. In order to parse a sentence, it is necessary 
to understand its proper meaning. Then, in 
parsing it, let the following general principles 
be remembered, viz. : 

1. Every Article 9 Adjective, Adjective pronoun, or 
Participle, belongs to some noun or pronoun, expressed 
or understood. 

2. The subject of a verb, i. e. the person or thing spoken of, is 
usually in the nominative. 

3. Every noun or pronoun, in the nominative case, when 
spoken of, is the subject of a verb, expressed or understood, 
i. e. it is that of which the verb affirms. To this there are a few 
exceptions. 

Note.— A word is expressed, when it appears in the sentence : it is 
understood, when it is implied but does not appear. Thus, " Mary's paper 
is white, but John's is brown ; M in the first member of the sentence "paper" 
is expressed, in the last it is understood. 



ETYMOLOGICAL PARSING. 87 

4. Every verb in the indicative, potential, or subjunctive 
mood, must have a subject in the nominative case, expressed or 
understood, i. e. something of which it affirms. 

5. Every transitive verb in the active voice, and every 
preposition, governs a noun or pronoun in the objective 
case ; and every objective case is the object of a transitive verb in 
the active voice, or of a preposition. 

6. Every verb in the infinitive mood depends upon a verb 
or adjective ; sometimes a noun; and sometimes it stands 
after the conj unction, than or as. 

QUESTIONS.— What is parsing? How many kinds of parsing are 
there ? What is done in etymological parsing ?— in syntactical parsing ? 
What is necessary before parsing a sentence ? To what does every article, 
adjective, etc., belong ? In what case is the subject of a verb ? When a 
noun or pronoun in the nominative case is spoken of, what must it have ? 
What must every verb in the indicative, potential, or subjunctive mood have ? 
What case does every transitive verb in the active voice, and every preposi- 
tion, have after it? By what is the objective case always governed? 
When a verb is in the infinitive mood, by what is it governed ? 
[For the answer to the following questions, go back to the pages indicated.] 
How is a noun parsed? (88)— an article? (101)— an adjective? (126)— 
a pronoun? (147, 161, 166, 177)— a verb? (275)— an adverb? (302)— 
a preposition? (310) — a conjunction? (316) — an interjection? (320.) 
Parse all these as directed in the places referred to, and as described in the 
next Lesson. 



LESSON 37.— Etymological Parsing. 

MODEL. 
328. " Give instruction to a wise man, and he will be yet 

wiser." 

Give a verb, transitive, irregular ; give, giving, gave, given ; in 

the imperative, active, second person, singular. Its subject 
is thou understood, and its object, instruction. 

Instruction a noun, neuter, in the objective singular; the 

object of give* 

To. . . .a preposition ; it points out the relation between its ob- 
ject, man, and give. 

* The person and class of the noun are omitted for reasons stated, Illus- 
tration, p. 16. note. 



88 ETYMOLOGICAL PARSING. 

A .... an article, indefinite, belongs to man. 

Wise a common adjective; compared, wise, wise?*, icisest; and 

expresses a quality of man. 

Man a noun, masc aline, in the objective singular; pL men. 

And. . . .a conjunction, and connects the members. 

He. . ».a pronoun of the third person, masculine, in the nomin- 
ative singular ; the subject of will be, and stands for 
man. 

Will be. . . .a verb attributive, irregular ; am, being, was, been ; in 
the future, indicative, third person, singular, and affirms 
of its subject, he. 

Yet. . . .an adverb, modifying wiser. 

Wiser. . . .an adjective, comparative degree; wise, iciser, wisest ; 
and belongs to man, or is predicated of lie 

329* As a further exercise, the pupil may be required 
to give a reason for every thing affirmed in the preced- 
ing model ; thus, 

Why do you say that give is a verb ? Why transitive ? Why irregular ? 
Why the imperative ? Why the second person ? Why singular ? 

Why do you say that instruction is a noun ? Why neuter ? Why sin- 
gular ? Why the objective ? etc. 

EXERCISES IN PABSIJSTG. 

330* After the same manner as in the preceding Lesson, parse 
and practice on the following 

Maxims for Young and OlcL 

I. Early Piety. — Remember now thy Creator in the days of 
thy youth ; while the evil days come not, nor the years draw 
nigh, when thou shalt say, I have no pleasure in them. 

Children, obey your parents ; honor thy father and mother, is 
the first commandment with promise. 

A wise son heareth a father's instruction, but a scorner heareth 

not rebuke. The eye that mocketh at his father, and despiseth 

to obey his mother, the ravens of the valley shall pluck out, and 

the young eagles shall eat it. A wise son maketh a glad 

father, but a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother. Whoso 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 89 

love tli instruction loveth knowledge, but lie that liateth reproof 
is brutish. 

II. Education. — Train up a child in the way he should go. and 
when he is old he will not depart from it. 

Quintilian recommends to all parents the timely education of 
their children ; advising to train them up in learning, good man- 
ners, and virtuous exercises ; since we commonly retain those 
things in age which we entertained in youth. 

Tis education forms the common mind ; 
Just as the twig is bent, the tree 's inclined. 

An industrious and virtuous education of children is a better 
inheritance for them than a great estate. 

III. Prosperity and Adversity. — If I must make choice 
either of continual prosperity or adversity, I would choose the 
latter ; for in adversity no good man can want comfort, whereas, 
in prosperity, most men want discretion. Adversity overcome, is 
the greatest glory ; and, willingly undergone, the greatest virtue ; 
sufferings are but the trials of gallant spirits. 

IV. Anger. — The continuance of anger is hatred ; the continu- 
ance of hatred becomes malice ; that anger is not warrantable 
which has suffered the sun to go down upon it. Let all men 
avoid rash speaking. One unquiet, perverse disposition, distem- 
pers the peace and unity of a whole family, or society — as one 
jarring instrument will spoil a whole concert. 

V. Riches. — Riches beget pride ; pride, impatience; impa- 
tience, revenge ; revenge, war ; war, poverty ; poverty, humility ; 
humility, patience ; patience, peace ; and peace, riches. 

The shortest way to be rich, is not by enlarging cur estates, 
but by contracting our desires. A great fortune in the hands of a 
fool, is a great misfortune. The more riches a fool has, the 
greater fool he is. 

Perseverance. — It is astonishing to see how much can be 
done by perseverance. Jessie is not so smart as either of her sis- 
ters, yet it strikes me. she will grow up the most sensible woman 
of the three ; and what do you think is the reason ? Why, be- 
causes he never says she can not do a thing, but tries, over and 
over again, till she does it. 



PART THIRDS-SYNTAX. 

LESSON 38— Analysis of Sentences. 

SSI. Syntax is that part of Grammar which treats 
of the proper arrangement and connection of 
words in a sentence. 

332. A Proposition is a single statement or affirmation ; 

as, " Bees make honey" — " It will be cold in winter" 

333. A Sentence is such an assemblage of words as ex- 
presses a proposition and makes complete sense ; * as, John 
studies. — He will leave to-morrow. — Buy the book, if it is a good 
one. — Go to school early. — Bo you go to school ? 

334. A Clause is a sentence nsed in another sentence to 
limit it, or any part of it ; as, If John study, he will improve. 
(38S.) It is an element of a sentence containing within itself a 
subject and a predicate. 

335. A Phrase is two or more words rightly put together, 
but not making complete sense or expressing a proposition ; as 
" A good boy" " By and by." " In truth, he did it." 

330. The term plirase, in grammar is now generally limit- 
ed to the preposition and its regimen as an adjunct of the 
antecedent term. (300,) 

337. Infinitives and. Participles with their regimen are 
clauses. (See Anal. 136) 

338. A word, phrase, or clause used to qualify or limit 
another word, is called an adjunct. 

339. When the adjunct is in the predicate and affirmed of 
the subject, it is called an attribute ; as, Snow is white. 

EXERCISES. 

[In the following, which are sentences ?— which are clauses ?— which are 
phrases ?— which are adjuncts ?— which adjuncts are attributes ?] 



* The word u proposition" refers to the substance of what is stated. The 
sentence is the language which expresses it. 



PARTS OF A SEKTE^CE. 91 

Ice is cold. In truth. God is good. Life is short, and 

it should be well improved. Truth will prevail. Birds 

sleep in the open air, and awake early in the morning. To be 

sure. — — The grass of the prairies is good food for cattle. How 

many men were there? Listen to good advice. 



LESSON 39.— Parts of a Sentence. 

340. Every sentence consists of two parts, — the 
Subject and the Predicate. 

34:1, The Subject is that of which the affirmation is made ; 
as, "Life is short." " Birds sing." " Haste makes waste." 

34:2. The subject of a sentence is commonly a noun or 'pro- 
noun, or a clause used as a substantive ; as, God is good ; he does 
good. — To be a good scholar is an honor. — " That the world is a 
sphere, has been abundantly shown." — " Dust thou art, to dust 
returnest, was not spoken of the soul. v 

343, The Predicate is that which is affirmed of the sub- 
ject ; as, " Life is short" " Rome teas not built in a day." 

344, The predicate properly consists of two parts — the attri- 
bute affirmed of the subject, and the copula 9 by which the 
affirmation is made. Thus, in the sentence, " Gfcd is love," God 
is the subject, and is love is the predicate, in which love is the 
attribute, and is the copula. 

345, In the analysis of a sentence, first find the entire sub- 
ject, and the entire predicate, before any discussion of 
individual words ; for although there is generally a leading sub- 
stantive, and always a principal verb, yet for the purposes of dis- 
course the affirmation is made not of the noun simply, but of all 
the words, phrases, and clauses that limit it — and although it is 
the verb that affirms, yet the affirmation is incomplete unless we 
also take into account all the elements that modify the verb. The 
following are examples : 



92 PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 



Birds 

Grass 

Good boys 

A good man 

A bad man 

The lazy boy 

The active boy 

The man whom yon saw 

The industrious man 



Subject. Predicate. 

fly- 

is green. 

obey their parents. 

is respected by all. 

is not respected. 

moves slowly. 

moves rapidly. 

came while you were gone. 

enjoys the fruit of his labor. 



Note.— The teacher should illustrate fully by use of the blackboard, ques- 
tioning the pupils until this distinction is perfectly understood. 

34:6. The attribute and copula are often expressed by one 
word, which in that case must be a verb ; as, " The fire burns," 
=" The fire is burning." Hence, 

34:7* The attribute may be a noun or pronoun, an adjective, 
a preposition with its case, an adverb, an infinitive or part of a 
sentence, connected with the subject by an attributive verb as a 
copula. 1 

348. The attributive verbs are such as, be, become, 
seem, etc ; and the passive forms of deem, call, name, consider, 
etc. ; as, He became wise. He was called a benefactor. 2 

349. The Verb of the predicate is called the Affirmer. 

EXERCISES. 

[In the following sentences mention the affirmer of each predicate— the 
attribute — the copula. Mention the subject of each — the predicate of each.] 

Snow is white. Ice is always cold. Birds fly. Home 

should be pleasant. The fields are green in the spring. Be 

sure that truth will prevail. Hoes he go to school ? To learn 

a lesson well is commendable. The man saw him.- Horses 

eat hay. John and Jane will come, if invited. Crows are 

never the whiter for washing themselves. Between virtue and 

vice, there is no middle path. 

[Write additional sentences, with another predicate for each of these sub- 
jects, and another subject for each predicate.] 

A. & P. Gr.- 1 603. a 60S. Anal.- 2 49, 2. 



classes op sekte;n t ces. 93 

LESSON 40.— Classes of Sentences. 

350. Sentences as to the Form of the affirmation or 
mode of expressing it, are divided into four classes, viz. : 

1. Declaratory, or such as declare a thing; as, ''God is 
love." 

2. Interrogatory, or such as ask a question; as, "Lovest 
thou me ? " 

3. Imperative, or such as express a command, entreaty, 
etc. {218) ; as, " John, go home." " Grant me my request." 

4. Exclamatory, or such as contain an exclamation ; as, 
" See how he runs ! " 

351. Sentences are Transitive, Intransitive, or Attri- 
butive, according to the kind of verb in the predicate. {181, 
182, 183.) 

352. As to the Number of Propositions 

they contain, sentences are divided into tiuo classes, 
Single and Compound. 

353. A Single Sentence i expresses only one proposition ; 
as, " John runs." — " John runs faster than the dog." — " I "will go 
if the sun shines." — " John and James left the table." 

354:. A Co mpound Sentence consists of two or more single 
sentences so united as to express several related proposi- 
tions ; 2 as, " John runs and James walks." — " The wicked flee 
when no man pursueth, but the righteous are bold as a lion." 

EXERCISES. 

[State which of the following sentences are single, which compound, 
and of each whether declaratory, interrogatory, imperative, or exclamatory, 
and why?— transitive, intransitive, or attributive, and why.] 

Birds fly. Do any fish fly ? He is a gentleman and a 

scholar. Bring me the book and I will read it. Write to 

me. Ah ! I see it. The tide rises twice in twenty-four 

hours. The land is good, but the buildings are old. Do you 

intend to buy the farm ? Yes ; and I shall build a house on it. 

By improving the land I shall have better crops. Who 

made the noise ? Charles, sir. 

Anal.— 1 53. * 84—107. 



94 SINGLE SENTENCES. 



LESSON 41.— Single Sentences. 

355. Single Sentences (expressing only one 
complete proposition) are of three kinds : viz., Sim- 
ple, Composite, and Complex. 

356. A Simple Sentence contains but one subject, one 
affirmer, and, if transitive or attributive, one object or attribute ; 
as, Horses run. — John strikes Thomas. — Sugar is sweet. — -The 
boy reads (the paper). 

35 7. The Simple Sentence may be enlarged 1 — 1. By an ad" 
junct word or phrase in any or all of its parts ; as, " Wise men 
use rightly their time." 2. By the substitution of a clause for 
its subject, object, or attribute ; as, "To be angry is to be mad." 

358. The Composite Sentence, in expressing one propo- 
sition, may have ttvo or more subjects, affirmer s, objects, or 
attributes, and is said to be comjjound in the part thus affected ; 
as, "Time and tide wait for no man." "He studies and recites 
grammar." " The sky is bright and clear." 

359. The Complex, Sentence is a single sentence contain- 
ing a subordinate or dependent clause which limits the 
principal clause, or some part of it ; as, " The boy who studies 
will excel."- — " We will go when the train leaves." 

EXERCISES. 

[In the following single sentences, which are simple ? which are com- 
posite with compound subject? with compound predicate? which are 
complex sentences, and why ?] 

Grass is green. Wood and coal will burn. Coal burns 

readily when properly ignited. He can read and write well. 

1 will finish the work when you wish me. If the road is 

good, we can travel fast. 1 bought a book and a slate for a 

good boy. And now abideth faith, hope, and charity. That 

is gold which is worth gold. Learn to unlearn what you have 

learned amiss. 

Anal.— 1 56. 



THE SUBJECT. 95 



LESSON 42 -The Subject. 

360. The subject of a sentence is either gram- 
matical or logical. 

361. The grammatical subject is the person or thing 
spoken of, unlimited by other words ; as, "Horses are strong." 

362. The logical subject is the person or thing spoken of, 
together with all the words, phrases, or clauses by wliich it is 
limited or defined. Thus : in the sentence, " Every man at his 
best estate is vanity/' — the grammatical subject is "man;" the 
logical is, "Every man at his best estate." 

363. A relative clause which limits a grammatical sub- 
ject is called an adjective adjunct; as, " The boy who studies 
will improve." — (Studious boy.) * 

364:. When the grammatical subject has no limiting 

words connected with it, then it and the logical subject are 
the same ; as, " God is good." — "Birds sing sweetly in the 
spring." 

365. The subject of a proposition is either simple 
or compound. 

366. A simple subject consists of one subject of thought ; 
as, Snow is white. The loiter of the steamboat exploded. 

367 • A compound subject consists of two or more simple 
subjects, to which belongs the same predicate ; as, You and J are 
friends. — Time and tide wait for no man, — Two and three are five. 

EXERCISES. 

[In the following sentences, wliich is the grammatical, and which the 
logical subject? State whether simple or compound— limited or unlimited. 
Distinguish the simple and the compound subjects. Point out the subject 
and the predicate in each.] 

The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom. All men 

have not faith. The memory of the just is blessed. Happy 

is the man that findeth wisdom. The blessing of the Lord 

Anal.— 1 115. 



96 MODIFICATIONS OF THE SUBJECT. 

maketh rich. -Wise men lay up knowledge. The rich and 

the poor meet together. Wealth makes many friends. 

James and John are cousins. A grammatical subject is un- 
limited. Some dogs are savage. The white horse died. 

[Write predicates to the following compound subjects:] 

John and James. He and she. You and I. The rich 

and poor. Virtue and vice. Heat and cold. 



LESSON 43— Modifications of the Subject. 

368. A grammatical subject, being a noun 
or pronoun, may be modified, limited, or described in 

various ways ; as, . 

1. By a noun in apposition y 1 as, "Milton, the poet, was 

blind." 

2. By a noun in the possessive case; as, "Aaron's rod 

budded." 

3. By an adjunct phrase ; as, " The works of Nature are 

beautiful." 

4. By an adjective word, (i. e. an article, adjective, adjec- 

tive pronoun, or participle) ; as, "A good name is better 
than riches." 

5. By a relative and its clause; as, "He who does no good, 

does harm." 

6. By an infinitive clause ; as, " A desire to learn is praise- 

worthy." 

7. By a clause in apposition ; 2 as, " The fact that lie was 

a scholar, was manifest." 

8. Each grammatical subject may have several modifica- 

tions ; as, "Several stars of less magnitude which we had not 
observed before now appeared." 

369. When the grammatical subject is an infinitive, or a 
participle used as a noun, it may be modified like the verb 
in the predicate {384:). 

A. & P. Gr.— * B68. 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE MODIFYING WOEDS. 9? 

EXERCISES. 

[In the following sentences, point out the grammatical subject— the 
logical — and state how the grammatical subject is modified.] 

A wise man foreseetli evil. Wisdom's ways are pleasant- 
ness. Treasures of wickedness profit nothing. He that 

waiketh uprightly walketh surely.— — Nature does nothing in 

vain. Socrates, the philosopher, died by poison. A desire 

to excel will stimulate to exertion. 



LESSON 44.— Modifications of the Modifying 
Words. 

370. Modifying or limiting words may 

themselves be modified. 

1. A noun modifying another may itself be modified in all 

the ways in which a noun, being a grammatical subject, is 
modified. 

2. An adjective qualifying a noun may itself be modified — 

(1.) By an adjunct phrase ; as, " Be a man just in your 

dealings." 
(2.) By an adverb ; as, "A truly good man hates evil." 
(3.) By an infinitive ; as, "Be swift to hear, slow to 

speak." 

3. An adverb may be modified — 

(1.) By an adjunct phrase; as, "Agreeably to Nature" 
(2.) By another adverb; as, " Yours, very sincerely/' 

371. A modified grammatical subject regarded as a 
complex idea, may itself be modified ■ l as, " The old black horse 
is dead ; " " The first two lines are good." 

EXERCISES. 

[In the following sentences, by what words are the modifying nouns 
modified ?— the adjectives ?— the adverbs ?] 



A. &P. Gi\— 1 689. 



98 THE PREDICATE. 

Great wealth properly used is a blessing. — —The very best 

remedy for certain evils is exercise. Truly great men are far 

above worldly pride. Your very kind letter has been received. 

The river flows very rapidly. 



LESSON. 45.-The Predicate. 

372. I. The predicate, like the subject, is either 
grammatical or logical. 

373. The grammatical predicate consists of the attribute 
and copula, not modified by other words. 

374=. The attribute, which together with the copula forms 
the predicate, may be expressed by a noun or pronoun — James 
is a scholar — James is he; an adjective — James is diligent ; a 
participle — James is learned ; a preposition with its re- 
gimen — James is in health; and sometimes an adverb — John 
is not so. 

375, The attribute is also expressed by an infinitive or 
other dependent clause; as, "'To obey is to enjoy." — "The 
order is that we must go." 

370. The logical predicate is the grammatical, together 
with all the words and phrases and clauses that modify it : — ■ 
Thus, u Nero was cruel to his subjects,"— grammatical predicate, 
" was cruel" — logical, " was cruel to Ms subjects." 

377. When the grammatical predicate has no modifying 
terms connected with it, the grammatical and logical predicates 
are the same ; as, " Life is short." — " Time flies." 

378. II. The predicate, like the subject, is either 
simple or compound. 

37^. A simple predicate ascribes to its subject bat one 
attribute ; as, " Truth is mighty." 

380. A compound, predicate consists of two or more 

simple predicates, affirmed of the same subject ; as, " Truth is 
mighty and will prevail." 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE PKEDICATE. 99 

EXERCISES. 

[In the following sentences, name the subject and the predicate— state 
whether the predicate is simple or conjoin id— tell what is the gram- 
matical, and what is the logical predicate.] 

The wind blows. The fire burns. Man is mortal. 

Wisdom is the principal thing. He that tilleth his land shall 

be satisfied with bread. The way of a fool is right in his own 

eyes.- A soft answer turneth away wrath. The fields are 

green. Caesar came, saw, and conquered. John reads and 

writes well. The cities of the enemy were plundered and 

burned to the ground. The night was dark and rainy. He 

is a colonel in the regular army. 



LESSON 46.— Modifications of the Predicate. 

381. A grammatical predicate may be 

modified or limited in various ways. 

382. When the attribute in the grammatical predi- 
cate is a noun, it is modified — 

1. By a noun or pronoun limiting or describing the attri- 

bute ; as, " He is John the Baptist" — " He is my friend." 
— " He is my father's friend." 

2. By an adjective or participle limiting the attribute ; as, 

" Solomon was a wise king." 

383. When the affirmer (349) contains the 
attribute, it may be modified — 

1. By a noun or pronoun in the objective case, as the 

object of the verb: as, "We love tor/."— " John reads 
Homer." 

2. By an adverb ; as, " John reads well." 

8. By an adjunct ; as, " They live in London," 
4 By an infinitive ; as, " Boys love to play" 
5. By a substantive clause; as, "Plato taught that the 
soid is immortal.'' 



100 LIMITING CLAUSES. 

384. An infinitive or participle may be modified in all 
respects as the finite verb in the predicate. 

%* The object of a transitive sentence, or any substantive in 
the objective case, may be modified in all the ways in which a 
subject may be modified. 

385. A modifying clause, if a dependent proposition, 
may be modified in both its subject and predicate as other propo- 
sitions. 

386. All other modifying words may themselves be 
modified, as similar words are, when modifying the subject. 

387* Several modifications are sometimes connected 
with the same predicate ; as, "He reads a good book carefully 
every evening." 

EXERCISES. 

[In the following sentences, distinguish the grammatical predicate — 

state whether the attribute is a noun, or whether it is contained in the 
affirmer or verb— state how it is modified.] 

His father and mother are dead : they died a year ago. 

Hannibal crossed the Alps. Livy and Tacitus were Eoman 

historians. His intention was to destroy the fleet. Time 

flies rapidly. Sincerity and truth are the basis of every virtue. 

— — I wish that he would come soon. 



LESSON 47.— Limiting Clauses. 

388* Clauses limiting single sentences, or the 
members of compound sentences, may be classified as 
to their office into substantive, adnominal, and 

adverbial. 

389. A substantive clatise performs the office of a noun; 
as, " That I said so is most true." — " He loves to do right:' 

390. An adnominal clause limits like an adjective ; as, 

" The boy who studies will improve." — " The master directed him 
to study" — " Admirp.d. he became v4n." 



LIMITING CLAUSES. 101 

39 !• An adverbial clause performs the office of an ad- 
verb ; as, " He goes to school to learn." — u He is wiser than his 
brother." 

392* The clause on which another depends is called the lead- 
ing clause, its subject the leading subject, and its predicate the 
leading predicate. 

393. In a complex single sentence, the dependent 
clauses are usually connected by relatives, conjunctive 
adverbs, or conjunctions ; thus — 

Relative, — " The apples that are in the basket are sold." 
Conjunctive Adverb. — " We shall go when the cars go." 
Conjunction. — " The miser lives poor that he may die rich" 

394. The connecting tcord is sometimes omitted; as, " This 
is the book (which) I lost." 

395. A dependent clause is frequently abridged by 
omitting the connecting word and changing the verb of the 
predicate into a participle or infinitive ; as, " When we have 
finished our lessons, we will play " — Abridged, * Having finished 
our lessons, we will play." 

39(>. When the dependent clause is the object of the verb in 
the leading clause, it may often be changed for the infinitive 
with a subject ; as, " I know that he is a scholar " — Abridged, 
" I know him to be a scholar." 

397 . When in such cases the subject of the dependent clause 
is the same as the subject of the principal clause, it is omitted 
in the abridged form ; as, " I wished that I might go" — Abridged, 
" I wished to go" 

398. A dependent clause may be abridged by sub- 
stituting an equivalent qualifying word or an adjunct ; as, "The 
man who is honest will be respected " — Abridged, " The honest 
man will be respected." 

EXERCISES. 
[1. Abridge the following propositions, and write them out:] 

When our work is finished, we will play. When I had 

visited Europe, I returned to America, It is said that " the 



102 COMPOUND SEOTEKCES. 

love of money is the root of all evil ;" daily observation shows 
that it is so. 

[2. Extend the following abridged propositions, and write them:] 

Time past can never be recalled. The road leading to the 

castle was blocked np. 1 know it to be gennine. You know 

him to be your friend. We hold these principles to be self- 
evident. His being successful is doubtful. The war being 

ended, trade revived. 



LESSON 48.— Compound Sentences. 

S99. A compound sentence consists of two or 
more single sentences so united as to express several 
related propositions ; as, " The man walked; and the 
boy ran." 

4:00. The propositions which make up a compound 
sentence are called members* 

401, The members of a compound sentence are gram" 
mcitically independent of -each other; each will make 
sense by itself. 

*** After stating the members, and how they are connected, 
analyze each as if it were a single sentence. 

402. The members of a compound sentence are con- 
nected by such conjunctions as and, or, nor, but, yet, etc, ; as, 
" The harvest is passed, the summer is ended, and we are not 
saved." 

In such sentences, the connective is often omitted. 

EXERCISES. 

[1. In the following sentences, state which are single, and which are 
compound. In the compound sentences, point out the members.] 

We may not always have time to read, but we always have 

time to reflect. Time passes quickly, though it appears to 

move slowly. Care for yourself, and others will care for you. 

The eyes of the Lord are in every place beholding the evil 



DIRECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS. 



103 



and the good. Righteousness exalt eth a nation. — — John is 

taller than I, though I am older than he. 

[2. In the following compound sentences, name the members — name the 
connecting ivords.] 

The weather was fine, and the roads were excellent, but we 
were unfortunate in our companions. Beauty attracts admira- 
tion, as honor (attracts) applause.— — Time is ever advancing, but 

it leaves behind it no traces of its night. When I was a child 

I spake as a child, but when I became a man I put away childish 

things. He may go, or he may stay. He was not a good 

speaker, yet he was an admirable writer. 



m 
m 



Classification of Sentences. 



1. Form 



■1 



2. Nature of 



Declaratory. 
Interrogatory. 
Imperative. 
Exclamatory. 
r Transitive. 



1NATURE of r, ... 

^Attributive. 



3. Number of 
Propositions. " 



Single . 



I Simple. 
-J Composite.. 
I Complex. 



•~ Subject. 
§ Affirmer. 
| Object. 
c q Attribute. 



Compound , 



j No logical relation. 
( Logical sequence. 



LESSON 49.— Directions for Analysis. 

d03, 1. State whether the sentence is single or com- 
pound ; whether transitive, intransitive, or attribu- 
tive ; whether declaratory 9 interrogatory 9 impera- 
tive, or exclamatory. 

2. If single, state whether it is simple, composite, or com- 
plex. 

3. Name the logical subject and the logical predicate. 



104 MODELS OP ANALYSIS. 

4. Name the grammatical subject. 

5. Show by what words, phrases, or clauses, if any, the gram- 
matical subject is modified in the ]ogical. 

6. Show by what modifying words, if any, each modifying 
word is modified. 

7. Name the grammatical predicate. 

8. Show by what words, phrases, or clauses, if any, it is modi- 
fied in the logical. 

9. Show by what modifying words, phrases, or clauses, if any, 
each modifying word is modified. 

10. If the sentence is compound, mention the members. 

11. Show hotv the members are connected. 

12. Analyze each member as a single sentence, by show- 
ing its subject, predicate, etc., as above. 

N. B. — In analyzing sentences, it will be necessary always to 
supply words left out. by ellipsis, and to supply the antecedent 
to the relative what, and to the compound relatives whoever, who- 
soever, whatever, whatsoever ; making also the change which is 
necessary in the relatives themselves, when the antecedent is 
supplied. 1 

Models of Analysis. 

404. 1. God is good. 

This is a single sentence, simple, because it contains a single 
affirmation ; declaratory because it declares something ; 
attributive — it affirms the attribute good of the subject God. 

God is the logical subject, because it is that of which the quality 
good is affirmed. 

Is good is the logical predicate, because it affirms of its sub- 
ject. Is is the verb or copula, and good is the attribute. 

In this sentence, the grammatical subject and predicate are the 
same as the logical, because they are not modified by other 
words. 

Or, more briefly, thus : — The logical subject is God. The logical 
predicate is is good, in which is is the verb or copula, and 
good the attribute. The grammatical subject and predicate 
are the same as the logical. 

A. & P. Gr.-a ^66. 



MODELS OP ANALYSIS. 105 

2. The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom. 

This is a single sentence, simple, declaratory , attribu- 
tive. 

The logical subject is The fear of the Lord. 

The logical predicate is is the beginning of wisdom. 

The grammatical subject is fear. It is limited by the adjunct, 

of the Lord, and shown to be limited by the article ihe. 

(308, 4) 
The grammatical predicate is is beginning, in which is is the 

verb or copula, and beginning the attribute. It is modified 

by the adjunct of wisdom, and shown to be limited by the. 

(382.) 

3. Two and two make four. 

This is a single sentence, composite (with a compound subject), 

declaratory, transiti ve. 
The logical subject is two and two, compound. 
The logical predicate is m tike four. 
The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 
The grammatical predicate is make ; it is modified by its object 

four. 

4. Will the king light and not conquer ? 

This is a single sentence, composite, (with a compound predicate) 
interrogatory, used intransitively, (object omitted.) 

The logical subject is the king. 

The logical predicate is ivill fight and not conquer, com- 
pound. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The first grammatical predicate is will fight; the second is 
not conquer ; they are connected by and. 

5. Eemember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth. 

This is a single sentence, simple, fonperative, transitive. 

The logical subject is thou understood." 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The logical predicate is Remember now thy Creator in the days of 

thy youth. 
The grammatical predicate is He member. It is modified by 

now, an adverb of time, also by its object Creator, limited by 



106 DIRECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS. 

the possessive adjective pronoun thy. It is further modified by 
the adjuncts in the days of thy youth. In the first of these 
adjuncts, the term days is limited by the second adjunct, and 
shown to be so by the definite article the. 

6. "A good man does what (=that which) is right, 
from principle/' 

This is a single sentence, complex, declaratory, transitive, con- 
taining one leading affirmation and one dependent clause, con- 
nected by which. 

The logical subject of the whole sentence is A good man ; the 
logical predicate is does what is right from principle. 

The leading affirmation is A good man does that from principle. 

The dependent clause is which is right, and is restrictive of that 
in the leading proposition, the antecedent to which, the connect- 
ing word. 

In the first or leading clause — , 

The logical subject is A good man. 

The logical predicate is does that from principle. 

The grammatical subject is man, qualified by good, and shown to 
be indefinite by a. 

The grammatical predicate is does, modified by its object that, 
and the adjunct from principle; that is modified by the rela- 
tive clause. 

In the second, or dependent clause — 

The logical subject is which. It also connects its clause with the 
antecedent that, and restricts it. 

The logical predicate is is right, in which is is the verb or copula, 
and right is the attribute. 

The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the 
logical. 1 

7. Righteousness exalteth a nation ; but sin is a 
reproach to any people. 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of two members, con- 
nected by out. Declaratory. 

The first member, " Righteousness exalteth a nation," is a single, 
simple sentence, transitive, of which 

The logical subject is Righteousness. 

A. &P.Gr.— l 610, 624. 



COKSTKUCTIOK OF SEOTEtfCES. 107 

The logical predicate is exalteth a nation. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is exalteth {265). It is modified by 
its object nation, and this is shown to be used indefinitely by 
the article a prefixed. 

The second member, sin is a reproach to any people, is also a 
single, simple sentence, attributive, and connected with the pre- 
ceding member by the conjunction but, expressing contrast or 
opposition. 

Of this member, the logical subject is sin. 

The logical predicate is is a reproach to any people. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is is a reproach, of which is is the 
copula, and reproach the attribute, shown to be used indefi- 
nitely by the article & prefixed. It is modified by the adjunct 
to any people. In this adjunct, the word people is used in a 
general or unlimited sense, as intimated by the indefinite adjec- 
tive pronoun any prefixed. 

EXEBGISES. 

[Thus analyze the following sentences :1 

Man is mortal. All men are mortal. The man and woman 

arrived to-day. He sold his horse and wagon The hand of 

the diligent maketh rich. The love of money is the root of all 

evil.- — A friend in need is a friend indeed. He that trusteth 

in his riches shall fall If I do not go you must. The fire 

burns fiercely when the wind blows it. It was I who wrote the 

letter, and he carried it to the post office. He gave the book 

to some one, I know not to whom. 



LESSON 5 0.— Construction of Sentences. 

405. Words- are arranged in. sentences, accord- 
ing to certain rules, called the Rules of Syntax. 

406. General Principles. 
1. In every sentence there must be a verb and its subject. 

expressed or understood. 



108 CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 

2. Every article, adjective, adjective pronoun, or 
'participle, must have a substantive, expressed or understood. 

3. Every subject has its own verb, expressed or understood. 

4. Every finite verb (that is, every verb not in the infinitive 
or participial mood) has its own subject in the nominative case, 
expressed or understood. 

5. Every possessive case limits a noun or substantive. 

6. Every objective case is the object of a transitive verb in 
the active voice, or of a preposition ; or denotes circumstances of 
time, value, weight, or measure. (473.) 

7. The infinitive mood depends upon a verb, noun, or adjec- 
tive. 

8. Every adverb limits a verb, adjective, or adverb. 

9. Conjunctions unite words and phrases that/ stand in the 
same relation in a sentence. They also serve to connect mem- 
bers and clauses in complex and compound sentences. 

*#* The exceptions to these general principles will appear in 
the Rules of Syntax. 

Tarts of Syntax. 

407* The Hides of Syntax may all be referred to three 
heads ; viz., Concord, or agreement, Government, and Position. 

408. Concord is the agreement one word has with 
another in gender, number, case, or person. 

409. Government is the power which one word has in 
determining the mood, tense, or case of another word. The word 
governed by another word is called its regimen. (309.) 

410. Position means the place which a word occupies in 
relation to other words in a sentence. 

*** In the English language, which has but few inflections, 
the meaning of a sentence often depends much on the posi- 
tion 1 of its words. 

A. & P. Gr.- 1 541, 755, 759, 832. 



SUBSTANTIVES IN APPOSITION. 109 



LESSON 51 .-—Substantives in Apposition. 

411. Rule I. — Substantives denoting the same 
person or thing, agree in case ; as, Cicero, the ora- 
tor. Carlo, the large dog, is dead. 

4:12* Words thus used are said to be in apposition. 

413. Explanation. — A noun is placed in apposition after 
another noun, to express some attribute, description, or 
appellation, belonging to it. Both nouns must be in the 
same member of the sentence, that is, in the subject, or the predi- 
cate. This Rule applies to all words used substantively, and it 
is only when the word in apposition is a pronoun that there is 
any danger of error, because in pronouns only the nominative 
and objective are different in form. The word in apposition is 
sometimes connected with the preceding by the words as, being, 
and the like. 

EXERCISES* 

[1. In the following Exercise, point out the words in apposition. See 
if they are in the same case* If they are, the sentence is right ; if not, it is 
wrong, and must be corrected. In the following, some sentences are right, 
others wrong.] 

First in the hearts of his countrymen is Washington, the 

hero, the statesman, and the patriot. La Fayette, the friend of 

Washington, is no more. Your brother has returned, him who 

went abroad. 1 bought this paper from a bookseller, he who 

lives opposite ; will you please to give it to that boy, he that 

stands by the door ? Is your sister well, her that was lately 

sick ? Hand that book to John, he who read3 so well. The 

premium for the best writer is given to Thomas, he who took so 

much pains to excel. Brutus slew Caesar, him who was the 

great conqueror. Solomon, king of Israel, built a temple for 

Jehovah, his Lord. The President, Lincoln, was assassinated. 

* N. B. — Throughout the Exercises in Syntax— first, correct the errors, 
and write the exercises a? corrected; second, analyze orally the sen- 
tences corrected; thirdly, parse any word etymologically; and, lastly, parse 
syntactically the word or words to which the rule refers. (552.) 



110 ADJECTIVE AKD SUBSTAKTIYE. 

Us, boys, were there. Him, being a child, was for- 
given. 

[2. Write correct sentences, each to contain a noun, or a noun and 
its pronoun, in apposition.] 



LESSON 5 2.— Adjective and Substantive. 

414. Rule II. — 1. An adjective or a partici- 
ple qualifies the substantive to which it belongs; 
as, " A good man." " A horse ivearied by labor." 

An adjective used as an attribute (344) in the predicate 
must qualify the subject ; * as, "Sugar is sweet." 

2. Adjectives denoting one qualify nouns in the 
singular — adjectives denoting more than one 

qualify nouns in the plural ; as, "This man." "TJiese 
men." "Six feet." 

415. Explanation. — This Bule applies to all adjective 

tvord,s 9 namely, adjectives, adjective pronouns, and participles. 
These being indeclinable in English, there is danger of error only 
in the use of such as imply number. 

Observations. 

416. Adjectives denoting one are this, that, one, each, evert/, 
either, neither ; and the ordinal numerals, first, second, third, etc. 

417 . Adjectives denoting more tlian one are these, those, 
many, several; and the cardinal numerals, two, three, four, etc. 

418. Some adjectives implying number can be joined with 
either singular or plural nouns, according to the sense ; 
as, some, no, etc. ; thus, Some man — some men. 

419. Exception. — Vfhen a noun following the numeral is 
used in an adjective sense (109), it has not the plural termi- 
nation ; thus, we say, A four inch plank ; a three foot wall ; a four 
horse team ; a ten acre field, etc. 



A. & P. Gr.~ 3 084. 



ADJECTIVE AXD SUBSTANTIVE. Ill 

420. Adjectives should Dot be used as adverbs ; thus, 
miserable poor ; sings eleyant, should be, miserably poor ; sings 
elegantly. 1 

421. When two or more objects are contrasted, this and 
these refer to the last mentioned, that and those to the first ; 
as, " Virtue and vice are opposite qualities ; that ennobles the 
mind, this debases it." 

422. Comparison. — 1. When two objects are compared, the 
comparative degree is commonly used ; when more titan 
two, the superlative ; as, "He is taller than his father." 
" John is tallest amongst us." 

2. Double comparatives and superlatives are improper ; thus, 
" James is more taller than John," — omit more. " He is the most 
wisest of the three," — omit most. 

423. Position. — An adjective is generally put before its 
noun ; but in the following instances it is put after : 1. When 
it qualifies a pronoun. 2. When other words depend on 
the adjective. 3. When the quality results from the action 
expressed by the verb. 4. When the adjective is predicated? 

[*** For other varieties and exceptions, see A. & P. Gr. 677—706.] 

EXERCISES. 

[1. In the following Exercise, point out the adjectives, and the sub- 
stantives (41) which they qualify. Tell which denote one, and which 
more than one, and make the substantives singular or plural as the adjectives 
require.] 

A well six fathom deep. A pole ten feet long. A field 

twenty rod wide. 1 have not seen him this ten days. Those 

sort of people are common. These kind of things are useless. 

You will find the remark in the second or third pages. 

Each have their own place, and they know it. The second 

and third page were torn. 

[2. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain an adjective of 
number (416—418), and a substantive in the number required by the adjec- 
tive. Thus, Every man had a pole six feet long.] 

A. & P. Gr.-* 686. 2 70S. 



112 THE AETICLE. 



LESSON 5 3.-The Article. 

424. Rule III. — 1. The article a or an is put 
before common nouns in the singular number, 
when used indefinitely ; as, "A man" — "An apple;" 
that is, " any man " — " any apple." 

2. The article the is put before common nouns, 
either singular or plural, when used defi- 
nitely ; as, "The sun rises" — "The city of JSTew 
York." 

4:25. Explanation. — It is impossible to give a precise Rule 
for the use of the article in every case. The best general rule is, 
to observe what the sense requires. The following usages may 
be noticed. (For others, see A. & P. Gr. 707-728.) 

Observations. 

426. The article is omitted before a noun that is un- 
limited, or that stands for a whole species; as, Man is mortal; 
and before the names of minerals, metals, arts, etc. Some nouns 
denoting the species have the article always prefixed ; as, The 
dog is a more grateful animal than the cat. The lion is a noble 
animal. Others never have it ; thus, Lead is softer than iron. 
Wood is lighter than stone. 

427 » The last of two nouns after a comparative, 

should have no article when they both refer to one person or 

thing ; as, He is a better reader than writer. 

428. When two or more adjectives, or epithets, are used 
to qualify the same noun, the article should be placed before the 
first, and omitted before the rest ; but when they belong to 
different subjects, the article is pre fixed to each ; thus, 
"A red and white rose," indicates one rose, partly red and partly 
white. "A red and a white rose," means two roses, one red and 
one white. " Johnson, the bookseller and stationer," denotes one 
person. " Johnson the bookseller, and the stationer," denotes two. 



PERSONAL PK02SOUXS. 113 

EXERCISES. 

[1. The following sentences are wrong only in the use of the article. Show 
why they are wrong, and correct them.] 

A great talents without a virtue are dangerous. A man is 

mortal. A time flies. The money is scarce. John is a 

better farmer than a scholar. The black and the white spaniel 

runs fastest. The black and white spaniel run together. ■ 

The time and the tide wait for no man. A red and a white 

rose grows on this bush. The black and white man came to- 
gether. Smith, the tanner and currier, entered into partner- 
ship. Smith, the tanner and the currier, is a man of a great 

industry. 

[2. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain the article a or 
an, or the ; — others, which shall contain nouns without an article.] 



LESSON 54— Personal Pronouns. 

429. Kule IV. — Personal pronouns agree 
with the words for which they stand, in gender, 
number, and person; as, All that a man hath, 
will he give for his life. 

Explanation. — Only personal and possessive pronouns 
have different forms for the several genders, numbers and 
persons, and this Rule means, that when any of these pronouns 
is used, it must be of the same gender, number, and person, with 
the noun for which it stands. 

Special Hides. 

430. Rule 1. When a pronoun refers to two or more 
words taken together , it becomes plural, and if the words 
are of different persons, it prefers the first person to the second, 
and the second to the third ; as, "He and she did their duty." 
— "John and you and /will do OUR duty." 

431. Rule 2. When a pronoun refers to two or more 
words in the singular, taken separately ; or to one of them 
exclusively, it must be singular ; as, " A clock or a watch moves 
merely as it is moved." 



114 BELATIYE A^D ANTECEDENT. 

432. Eule 3.— But if either of the words referred to is 
plural, the pronoun must be plural also; as, " Neither he 
nor they trouble themselves" 

Observations* 

433. A pronoun referring to a collective noun in the singular, 
expressing many as one whole, should be in the neuter sin- 
gular ; but when the noun expresses many as individuals, 
the pronoun should be plural ; as, '-' The army proceeded on 
its march." — " The court were divided in their opinions." 

434. The word containing the ansiver to a question (163), 
must be in the same case as the word that asks it ; as, " Who 
said that ? " Ans. " I (said it)." " Whose books are these ? " 
Ans. " John's." 

[*#* For other Notes and Observations see A. & P. Gr. 730 - 741.] 

EXERCISES. 

[1. In the following Exercise, point out the personal and possessive 
pronouns (168) and the nouns for which they stand. Change the pronoun, 
if necessary, for one of the same gender, number, and person, with its noun.] 

Give to every man their due. Answer not a fool according to 

her folly. Take handfuls of ashes and sprinkle it toward 

heaven. Rebecca took raiment and put them upon Jacob. 

Thou and he shared it between them. Who is there ? Me. 

Who did that? Him. Whom did you meet? He. 

Whose pen is that ? Her or mine's. -Virtue forces her way 

through obscurity, and sooner or later it is sure to be rewarded. 



LESSON 5 5.— Relative and Antecedent. 

435. Eule V. — The relative agrees with its an- 
teeedent in gender, number and person ; as, 
"Thou who speakest." — " The look which was lost/' 

436. Explanation. — The relative stands instead of the noun 
or pronoun called its antecedent, and also connects the idea ex- 
pressed in its clause with the antecedent, either for the purpose 
of further describing it, or of limiting and restricting 



EELATIVE ASTD ANTECEDENT. 115 

it. {158.) Consequently, the relative is always regarded as of 
the same gender, person, and number as its antecedent ; and if 
the subject of a finite verb, the verb will be of the same number 
and person also. The relative has the same form in all genders. 
For remarks respecting the antecedent, and the use of ivlio 
and which, see Lesson 13. 

Special Mules. 

437. Rule 1. — WIio is applied to persons or tilings per- 
sonified; as, " The man who.''' — " The fox who had never seen a 
lion." 

438. Rule 2. — Which is applied to things, and inferior 
animals; as, " The house which ; " " The dog which." 

439. Rule 3. — That, as a relative, is used instead of 
tvJio or which — 

1. After the superlative degree, the words same, all, and 

sometimes no, some, and any; and generally in re- 
strictive clauses ; as, " It is the best that can be got." 

2. When the antecedent includes both 2>ersoiis and tilings ; 

as, " The man and the horse that we saw yesterday." 

3. After the interrogative tvho, and sometimes after the 

personal pronouns ; as, " Who that knows him will be- 
lieve it." — " I that speak in righteousness." 

4. Generally, when the propriety of icho or which, is doubt- 

ful ; as, * The child that was placed in the midst." 

440. Remark. — The relative as the object of a verb, gen- 
erally precedes the verb on which it depends ; as, " The man 
WHOM I saw, is here." — " I have found that which I lost" 

[*** For other remarks, see A. & P. Gr. 743—759.] 

EXERCISES. 

[1. Point out the relative, and the noun -or pronoun to which it refers. 
Tell the use of the relative and its clause in each sentence. Alter the rela- 
tive, if necessary, as required by its antecedent, according to Sub-Rule 1 . 
(437.) If the relative is in the nominative, put its verb in the same number 
and person as the relative or the antecedent. Give a reason for each change.] 

The friend which I love. The vice whom I hate There 

is the dog w r ho followed us.- — They which seek wisdom, find 



116 SUBJECT NOMINATIVE. 

it. All which beauty, all which wealth e'er gave. " I 

who speak unto you, am he." It is the best situation which 

can be got. The man and the horse whom we saw. 

[2. Write ten short sentences, each of which shall contain one or more 
of the following nouns or pronouns limited by a relative and its clause ; viz., 
Man, house, dog, tree, field, hat, boot, chair ; I, thou, he, we, you, they ; thus, 
** There is the man ivho makes baskets." Parse the sentences, and tell the 
number and person of the relative, and why.] 



LESSON 5 6.— Subject Nominative, 

441. Eule VL— The subject of a finite verbis 
put in the nominative; as, U I am" — "Thou art/' 
—"He is,"— "They &iQ."—"Time flies." 

442. Explanations. — A finite verb is a verb limited by 
person and number, i. e. a verb in the indicative, potential, 
subjunctive, or imperative mood. 

443* The subject of a finite verb may be 'a noun, a pro- 
noun, an infinitive mood, a participle used as a noun, 
or a substantive clause. Any of these, when the subject of 
a verb, may be regarded as a substantive in the nominative. 1 

Note. — In comparative sentences, 2 the substantives in the 
second member must be in the same case as the corresponding 
substantives in the first ; as, " One vice costs more than many 
virtues (cost)." — "He reads more than sh& (reads)." 

EXERCISES. 

[In each sentence, point out the verb and its subject. If the subject is 
not in the right case, change it.] 

Him and me are of the same age. Suppose you and me go. 

Them are excellent. It is probable that her and me will 

return. Robert is taller than me, but I am as strong as him. 

1 am older than him ; but he is taller than me. 

A. & P. Gr.— 1 761—767, Anal.— 2 135, 



NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE. 11" 



LESSON 5 7— Nominative Absolute. 

444. Kule VII. — A substantive ivlwse case de- 
pends on no other word, is put in the nominative 
absolute. 

Special Rules. 

445. Rule 1. — A substantive with a participle, whose 
case depends on no other word, is put in the nominative absolute ; 
as, "He being" gone, only two remain/ ' 

446 . Rule 2. — A substantive denoting a person or thing ad- 
dressed, toithout a verb or governing word, is put in the nomi- 
native ; as, " I remain, dear sir, yours truly." "Plato, thou rea- 
sonest well." 

447. Rule 3. — A substantive unconnected in mere excla- 
mation, is put in the nominative ; as, " O the times ! — the man- 
ners ! " 

448. Rule 4. — A substantive used by pleonasm } before 
an affirmation, is put in the nominative ; as, " Your fathers, where 
are they ? " 

*#* Under these Kules, a mistake can be made only in the case of pro- 
nouns. 

EXERCISES. 

[Point out the word in the case absolute or independent : if wrong, put 
it in the right case, and state why it should be in the nominative.] 

Me being absent, the business was neglected. Thee being 

present, he would not tell what he knew. Oh ! happy us, sur- 
rounded with so many blessings. Thee too ! Brutus, my son ! 

cried Cassar overcome. 



LESSON 5 8— Verb and its Subject. 

449. Kule VIII. — A verb agrees with its sub- 
ject in number and person ; as, "I read;" "Thou 
readest ; " " He reads ;" " We read" etc. 

A. & P. Gr.— » 1044, % 



118 verb a:nt> its subject. 

45 0. Explanation. — This Rule means, that a verb must take 
the form or termination denoting the same number and person 
with its subject. This Rule and the Special Rules under it apply, 
also, when the subject is an infinitive or other clause. See under 
Rule VI. 

EXERCISES. 

[1. In the following Exercises, tell which words are verbs — which the sub- 
jects — whether the verb and its subject agree— and if not, make them agree 
by putting the verb in the person and number of its subject.] 

You was there. They was absent. Your brothers has 

been abroad. Has your sisters come home ? Was you pres- 
ent ? The letters has come. Fair words costs nothing. 

There is no roses without thorns. So much of ability and 

merit are seldom found. In the work of education the order of 

studies are important. The value of the jewels are very great. 

[2. Take the verb to vjrite, and make it agree with 7— with you'— with he— 
with (hey— in all the tenses of the indicative mood. Take any other verb, and 
do the same.] 



LESSON 5 9.-Verb and its Subject. 
Special Mules under Mule VIII. 

451. Rule 1. — A singular noun used in a. plural 

sense, has a verb in the plural ; as, " Ten sail (meaning 
ships) are in sight." 

452. Rule 2. — Two or more substantives singular, taken to- 
gether, have a verb in the plural ; as, "James and John are 
here." 

453. Exc. — But when substantives connected by and denote 
one person or thing, the verb is singular ; as, " Why is dust and 
ashes proud ? " 

454. Rule 3. — Two or more substantives singular, taken sep- 
arately, or one to the exclusion of the rest, have a verb in the 
singular ; as, " James or John attends." — " The dog or the cat 
makes the noise." 



THE PEEDICATE SUBSTANTIVE. 119 

4:55. Rule 4. — When substantives taken together, are of dif- 
ferent persons, the verb agrees with the one nesct to it ; as, 
" James or I am in the wrong." Better, " James is in the wrong, 
or I am." 

456* Obs.— When the substantives are of different numbers, 
the plural number is usually placed last ; as, "Neither the cap- 
tain nor the sailors were saved." 

457* Rule 5.— 1. A collective noun expressing many, con 
siclered as one whole 9 has a verb in the singular ; as, "The 
company was large." 

2. But when a collective noun expresses many, considered as 
individuals, the verb must be plural ; as, " ~My people do not 
consider." 

EXEBCISES. 

[1. In the following Exercises, pet the verb in the number required by 
the Rule, and give the Rule for the correction.] 

(1.) Forty head of cattle was grazing in the meadow. 

Twelve brace of pigeons was sold for one dollar. (2.) Life and 

death is in the power of the tongue. — —Out of the same mouth 

proceedeth blessing and cursing.- (3.) Either the boy or the 

girl were present. (4.) I or you am to blame. (5.) The 

people was numerous. The deer were caught, 

[2. Write the sentences as corrected.] 



LESSON 60 .—The Predicate Substantive. 

458. Rule IX. — Tlie predicate substantive 

after an attributive verb, is put in the same case as 
the subject before it; as,- "It is /." — "He shall be 
called John." — " I took it to be him." 

459. Explanation. — Verbs having the same case after as 
before them, are chiefly those which signify to he, or to be- 
come ; passive verbs of naming, malting, choosing, and 

the like ; as, "John became a scholar ;" "David was made king." 



120 OBJECT OF A VERB. 

The substantive before the finite verb is the subject, the one after 
it is the predicate, and the verb is the copula. Hence they all 
form a simple sentence; and though the nouns denote the same 
person or thing, and are in the same case, they are not in apposi- 
tion, as in Rule I ; but the substantive after a verb is predicated 
of that before it. 

EXERCISES. 

[1. In the following Exercises, in each sentence, point out the verb to 
which the Rule applies, and the noun or pronoun before and after it. 

2. Tell the case of tho one before, and why. Put the one after the verb in 
the same case as the one before it, give the Rule for the change, and show 
how it applies. Tell the subject and predicate in each sentence.] 

It is me. It could not have been them. 1 am certain it 

was not me. — — That is the man who I thought it to be. Is 

that thee ? Whom did they say it was ? 1 understood it to 

have been he. Was it, me that said so ? It could not have 

been me ; but it might have been him, or her, or both. 

[3. Write similar correct sentences, in each of which shall be one 
of the following verbs, with the same case after it as before it, viz., is, are, 
became, was made, shall be chosen, to be, to be called, to be appointed. Apply 
the Rule as above.] 



LESSON 61. -Object of a Verb. 

460. Eule X.—A substantive being the object 
of a transitive verb in the active voice, is put in the 
objective case; as, "We love him:'— "Whom did you 
send ?" 

461. Explanation. — The transitive verb in the active voice, 
always tells what its subject dpes to some other person or thing, 
called its object. The rule means, that this object must always 
be put in the objective case. This rule is liable to be violated 
only when the object is & pronoun, because in all other words the 
nominative and the objective case are alike in form. (S3.) 

462. Nouns and personal pronouns in the objective case, are 



OBJECT OF A VERB. 121 

usually placed after the verb — relative and interrogative 

pronouns, usually before it. (440.) 

463. The infinitive mood, a participle used as a noun, 
or a substantive clause, may be the object of a transitive 
active verb ; as, " Boys love to play" — " He practised reading 
aloud." — " I know ichat he will do" 

EXERCISES. 

[1. In the following Exercises, point out the transitive verb — its sub- 
ject—its object,— put that object in the proper case— tell what that case is, 
and why.] 

He loves her and I.— — Did they hurt ye ? We know he and 

they.- He and they we know. The friend who I love. 

Take care who you admit. 1 will not give ye up. He who 

you ignorantly worship, declare I unto you. Let you and I go. 

This is the boy who I saw. 

[2. Write a number of sentences, each of which shall contain a tran- 
sitive verb in the active voice; such as, do, have, touch, hurt, love, etc., fol- 
lowed by a personal pronoun in the proper case. Parse them, and give the 
Rule.] 

Special Rules. 

4:64. Rule 1. — An intransitive verb canJiave no object; 
as, " Repenting him of his design " — -omit him. 

46 o. Rule 2. — Intransitive verbs used in a transitive 
sense (187), govern the objective case ; l as, "He runs a race" — 
" I laugh at him" 

466. Rule 3. — Intransitive verbs do not admit a 
passive voice 9 except when used transitively (210); as, "My 
race is run." 2 

467' Rule 4.— A transitive verb does not admit a 
preposition after it ; as, " I will not allow of it ;" — omit of. 

468. Rule 5. — Verbs signifying to name, appoint, con- 
stitute, and the like, generally govern two objectives, viz. : 
the direct, denoting the person or thing acted upon; and the 
indirect, denoting the result of the act expressed; as, "They 
named him John." 3 

A. & P. Gr.-~ * 805, 806. 2 807. 3 810—814. Anal.— 3 83, 1. 

6 



122 OBJECTIVE AFTER A PREPOSITION. 

EXERCISES UNDER THE SPECIAL RULES. 

[Show how the Rule is violated in each of the following sentences, and 
correct the error.] 

(1.) Robert plays himself with his lessons. He lies him 

down on the grass. (2.) They expatiated themselves largely. 

Planters grow cotton. Sit thee down. (3.) I am re- 
solved to go. Is your father returned? He is almost per- 
ished with cold. (4.) They do not want for any thing. His 

servants ye are, to whom ye obey. False accusation can not 

diminish from his real merit. (5.) He was chosen for a 

Senator. 



LESSON 62.— Objective after a Preposition. 

469. Eule XL — A substantive being 'the object 
of a preposition, is put in the objective case; as, 
"To whom much is given, of him much shall be re- 
quired." 

470. Explanation. — This rule can be violated only in the 
use of pronouns. 

471. Whom and tvhich sometimes depend upon a preposi- 
tion at some distance after them. But this should generally be 
avoided ; thus, " This is he idiom I gave it to," — better—" to 
whom I gave it." 

472. The preposition is sometimes omitted. It is then 
said to be understood ; thus, " Give (to) me that book." Here, 
"me" is the objective after "to" understood. 

Special Utile. 

473. Rule.— Nouns denoting- time, value, iveight, or 

measure are commonly put in the objective case without a 
governing word ; as, "He was absent six months last year" — "It 
cost a shilling" — " It is not worth a cent" — "It weighs a pound." 
— " The wall is six feet high, and two feet thick." 

This may be called the objective of time, value, weight, 
etc. 



OBJECTIVE AFTER A PREPOSITION. 123 

EXERCISES 

[1. Point out the preposition and the word which is its object. Put 
hat word in the proper case, if not in it already. Give the Rule.] 

This belongs to my father and I. Who did you get it from ? 

— Who shall we send it to ? Divide it between ye, or give 

t to him and I. This is a small matter between you and I. 

— Who did you give it to ? Who do you work for ? 

[2. In this way, twite a number of short sentences, each of which shall 
contain a preposition (see the list, 306), followed by a personal or relative 
pronoun in the proper case. Parse the sentences, and give the Rule for the 
jase after the preposition.] 

£74:. When the prepositions to, at, in stand before names 
di places, the following usage should be carefully observed, viz. : 

1. To — is used afterwords denoting motion toward; as, 

" He went to Spain ; but, in this case, it is omitted before 
home ; as, " He went home" 

2. At — is used before the names of houses, villages, 

towns, and foreign cities ; as, " He resides at the 
Mansion house — at Geneva — at Lisbon." 

3. In — is used before names of countries and large 

cities ; as, " He lives in England — in London." But 
before these, at is used after the verbs touch, arrive, 
■ land ; and sometimes after the verb to be. 

4. In speaking of one's residence in a city, at is used before 

the number, and in (generally understood), before the 
street. 

5. Into — is used after a verb implying motion / as, " He went 

into the house. In, after a verb implying absence of 
motion ; as, He is in the house. 

EXERCISES. 

[(474.) In the following sentences, change the preposition used, for that 
which usage requires, and give the special Rule.] „ 

I have been to home all day. Have you been to Boston ? 

They live in Union Village ; formerly they lived at New 

York. He has been at England, and has just returned to 

home. We touched in France on our way to home. He 

lives to Washington, at B Street, but resided formerly in No. SO 



124 



PREPOSITIONS AFTER CERTAIN WORDS. 



Broadway, New York. 1 saw him go in the barn a moment 

since. Six is contained into thirty, five times. He is into 

the store. 

[2. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain the name of 
some city, village, county, or state, preceded by a verb or word denoting mo- 
tion toward, or by the verb be, live, dwell, etc., and the appropriate preposi- 
tion.] 



LESSON 63.— Prepositions after certain words. 

475. Eule XII. — Certain tvords and phrases 
should be followed by appropriate prepositions ; 

Thus— 



Accuse of. 

Acquit of. 

Acquiesce in. 

Adapted to. 

Ask or inquire of a person, for 
what we wish to see — after 
what we wish to hear of. 

Believe in, sometimes on. 

Betray to a person, — into a thing. 

Call on a person, — at a place. 

Change for, — to, — into. 

Compare with, in respect to qual- 
ity, — to, for illustration. 

Confide in. 

Conformable, consonant to, with. 

Conversant with men -in things. 

Copy from life, nature, — after a 
parent. 

Dependent upon. 

Die of disease, — by an instru- 
ment or violence,— for another. 

Differ from. Difficulty in. 

Diminish from, — diminution of. 

Disappointed in what we have, 
— of what we expect. 



Discourage from. 

Discouragement to. 

Engaged in a work,— -for a time. 

Equal to, with. 

Exception from, — sometimes to. 

Expert at (before a noun), — in 

(before an active participle). 
Fall under disgrace ; from a 

tree ; into a pit ; on the ice. 
Familiar, to, with. A thing is 

familiar to us ; we with it. 
Fond of. Free from. 
Glad of something gained by 

ourselves, — at something that 

befalls another. 
Independent of. 

Indulge with what is not habit- 
ual, — in what is habitual. 
Insist upon. 
Made of Marry to. 
Martyr for. Need of. 
Observation of. Offensive to. 
Prevail (to persuade) with, on, 

upon, — (to overcome), over, 

against. 



PREPOSITIONS AFTER CERTAIN WORDS. 125 

Prejudice against. Profit by. Share in or of. Sick of. 

Prevail (to persuade) with, on, Similar to. 

upon; (to overcome) over, Swerve from. 

against. Taste (meaning capacity or incli- 

Protect (others) from, — (our- nation) for, — (meaning actual 

selves) against. enjoyment), of 

Provide with or for. Tax with, (e. g. a crime),— for the 

Reconcile (for friendship) to, — state. 

(for consistency) with. Unite (transitive) to ; (intrans.) 

Reduce (to subdue) under, — (in with. 

other cases) to ; as, to pow- Value upon, or on. 

der. Worthy*?/, — sometimes the of is 

Regard for, — in regard to. understood. 

[For additional instances, see A. & P. Gr. 884.] 

4:70* Explanation. — As words connected by prepositions, 
are differently related, care must be taken to employ the preposi- 
tion which best expresses the relation intended. The sense and 
the practice of correct writers will here be our best guide. The 
preceding are only a few examples out of many. 

4:77* Obs. — The same preposition that follows the verb or 
adjective, usually follows the noun derived from it ; as, Con- 
fide in, — confidence in, — confident in. 

£78. Wliat preposition to use often depends as much 
upon what folloivs, as upon what goes before ; as, " To fall 
from a height " — " into a pit " — " in battle." 

EXEBCISES. 

[1. Change the preposition where necessary in each of the following 
sentences, for that required by the Rule.] 

He was accused with robbery, and acquitted from the charge. 

1 have been calling upon an old friend. Call in the post 

office. — — I differ with you in that matter. John died by con- 
sum ption, Henry died of the sword, and Robert is sick with the 

jaundice. — —Try to profit from experience. You have a taste 

of poetry. Conversant in men and things. Compare this 

piece to that, and see which is the best. 1 could never bear the 

taste for tobacco. This is an exception against the general rule. 

[2. Write short sentences , each of which shall contain one or more of 
the words in the preceding table, followed by the appropriate preposition.] 



126 THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 

LESSON 6 4.— The Possessive Case. 

479. Eule XIII.— A substantive that limits 
the signification of another, denoting a different person 
or thing, 1 must be put in the possessive case ; as, " Vir- 
tue's reward." — "John's books." — " The sun's rays." 

480. Explanation. — The noun or pronoun in the jjosses- 
sive, always limits the noun that governs it, and denotes a 
different person or thing : Thus, " Virtue's reward ; " the latter 
word does not mean reward in general, or any indefinite reward, 
but a particular reward, viz., Virtue's. This Kule applies to the 
relative pronoun, and to the possessive case of the personal pro- 
noun, when the noun denoting the thing possessed is understood ; 
as, "That book is mine" When expressed, the possessor is 
denoted by the possessive adjective pronoun ; 2 as, " That is my 
book." 

Observations. 

4=81. When several nouns come together in the possessive 
case, implying common possession, the sign of the possessive 
('s) is annexed to the last, and understood to the rest ; as, 
" Jane and Lucy's books," i. e. books the common property of 
Jane and Lucy. 

482. But if common possession is not implied, or if several 
words intervene, the sign of the possessive should be annexed 
to each ; as " Jane's and Lucy's books," i. e. books, some of 
which are Jane's and others, Lucy's. 

483. When a name is complex, consisting of more terms 
than one, the sign of the possessive is annexed to the last only ; 
as, " Julius Csesar's Commentaries." — " The Bishop of London's 
Charge." 

484. The noun limited by the possessive is frequently 
understood ; as, " He stays at his father's " (house). 

485. The preposition of, with the objective, is frequently 
equivalent to the jyossessive, but not always ; as, A picture 
of my father means a portrait of him. My father's picture may 
mean a picture belonging to him. 

Anal.— 1 149. A. & P. Gr.— 2 842. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 127 

§W For several particulars "belonging to tliis Rule, see A. & P. 
Gr. 840-836. 

EXERCISES. 

[1. In the following Exercises, point out the noun or pronoun which 
limits, and the noun whose signification is limited by it ; and if the latter is 
understood, supply it. Put the limiting word in the possessive case. 
"When several words coming together should be in the possessive, or when 
the name is complex, add the sign of the possessive (>s) to the proper term. 
Write out the exercises when corrected.] 

The boys book. The girls bonnet. The Ladys book, a 

birds nest, a bear skin. A. mothers tenderness, and a fathers 

care, are natures gifts for mans advantage. A horse tooth. 

James and Thomas feet are cold. Williams and Marys reign. 

Sheldon's & Company's bookstore is in New York. James 

loss is Thomas gain. The Farmers Guide. The Scholars 

Companion. The Court's session is put off. The meeting's 

president was appointed. 

[2. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain two nouns, one 
limiting the other. Put the limiting word in the proper case.] 



LESSON 65.— Subjunctive Mood. 

486. Rule XIV. — The subjunctive mood is 

used in dependent clauses, ivhen both contin- 
gency or doubt, and futurity are expressed; as, 
" If lie continue to study, he will improve." x 

4:87. When contingency or doubt only, and not futurity, is 
implied, the indicative or potential is used ; as, " If lie has 
money, he keeps it." 

488. Explanation— Doubt and futurity are both implied 
when the auxiliary shall or should, referring to future time, 
can be inserted before the verb without changing the meaning ; 
thus, " Though he fall," and " Though he should fe.ll" mean the 
same thing. It is only in the present tense and third person 

A. & P. Gr.- 1 857—864. Anal.- 1 222-224. 



128 INFINITIVE MOOD. 

singular, that there is danger of error under this Rule, except in 
the verb to be. 

489. Remark. — Many of the best writers, and some distin- 
guished grammarians, often use the subjunctive present, when 
mere doubt or contingency is expressed, and not futurity. A 
contrary practice of using the indicative where both doubt and 

•futurity are implied, now begins to prevail ; thus, "If he con- 
tinues to study, he will improve." But the weight of good au- 
thority still is evidently in favor of the preceding Rules. A 
general adherence to them would have this advantage, that the 
mood used would be a certain guide to the sense intended. 

490. Sub-Rule. — Lest and that, annexed to a command, 
require the subjunctive mood; as, "Love not sleep, lest thou 
come to poverty." — "Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob, 
either good or bad." 

491. The subjunctive mood, in the ^>ast tense, expresses 
a supposition with respect to something present, but implies a 
denial of the thing supposed ; as, " If I were a nightingale, I 
would sing ;" implying, * I am not." 

EXEBC1SES. 

[In the following sentences, state whether the verb following "if" or 
"though" should be in the subjunctive or indicative mood, and why; 
and make the necessary correction.] 

If there be a rule, it should be observed. Though he be 

rich, he is not happy. If the mail arrives to-morrow, we shall 

have letters. If he studies diligently when he goes to school, 

he will improve. If he is discreet when he goes abroad, he 

will gain friends. If he have money, he must have earned it. 



LESSON 6 6.— Infinitive Mood. 



492. Eule XV. — The infinitive mood is gov- 
erned by verbs, nouns, or adjectives ; l as, "X 
desire to learn." — "A desire to learn/' — "Anxious to 
learn T 

Anal.— 1 155. 



INFIKITIVE MOOD. 129 

Special Mules. 

493. Rule 1. — One verb being the subject of another, is put 
in the infinitive y as, "To study is profitable." 

494. Rule 2. — A verb in the infinitive may be the object 
of another verb ; 1 as, " Boys love to play" 

495. Rule 3. — The infinitive, as the subject or object of a verb, 
sometimes has a subject of its own in the objective case; as. 
"For us to do so, would be improper. 7 ' — "I know him to be 
prudent." 

490. When the subject of the infinitive is not the same 
as that of the principal verb, it is always in the objective case. 
The subject is not repeated when it is the same as that of the 
principal verb ; as, "/ desire to play." 

497. Rule 4. — The infinitive is used as a predicate nomi- 
native after any verb as a copula; as, "You are to blame" 

498. Rule 5. — To, the sign of the infinitive, is not used 
after the verbs hid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, 
and let, in the active voice, nor after let in the passive ; as, " I 
saw him do it :" not " to do it." 

499. Rule 6. — The infinitive is used to express the par pose, 
end, or design of the preceding act ; 2 as, " Some who came to 
scoff, remained to pray." 

500. Rule 7.— In comparisons, the infinitive mood is put 
after so — as, too, or titan ; as, "Be so good as to read this." 
—"Too old to learn." — " Wiser than to undertake it." 

- EXERCISES. 

[1. In the following sentences, tell which verb is in the infinitive mood, 
and upon what it depends. State whether it is the subject or object of 
the principal verb. Insert or omit to, the sign of the infinitive, and give a 
reason according to the Rule.] 

Strive learn. Cease do evil.- Learn do well. He needs 

not to write. 1 would make you to take care.- He dares not 

to do a wicked action; nor will he dare do it. 1 heard him to 

say so. He was heard say so. Let James to do this. Bid 

A. & P. Gt.— 1 SO$—£71* 3 882. Anal.- 1 ISO, 182, 6. 



130 CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLES. 

Mm to speak to me. Did you see him to do that ? No ; but 

I heard him to do it. Did you hear the bell to ring ? Make 

him to go. — ( — He was made go. 

[2. Write sliort sentences, in each, of which shall be one verb in the 
infinitive mood, as the subject of another verb— as the object— to express the 
end or design— with to properly omitted— with a subject of its own in the 
objective case.] 



LESSON 6 7.— Construction of Participles. 

501. Eule XVI. — Participles have the construc- 
tion of nouns, adjectives, and verbs. 1 

502. Remark. — To participles used in these ways, the Rules 
of Syntax for nouns, adjectives, and verbs may generally be 
applied. 2 

Special Rules. 

503. Rule 1. — When the present or perfect participle is 
used as a noun, a noun before it is put in the jmsses- 
sive case; as, "Much depends on the pupil's composing fre- 
quently." 

504. Explanation.— The present participle is used as a 
verbal noun, whenever it is the subject of a verb or the 
Object of a transitive verb or preposition. Under this Rule, the 
verbal noun may be modified in all respects as the verb. 

505. A pronoun before the verbal noun must be the posses- 
sive pronoun, and not the possessive case ; as, " Much depends on 
your composing frequently," (not yours.) 

506. Rule 2.— When the present participle used as a 
noun, has an article or adjective before it, the preposition 
of follows ; as, " By the observing of these rules.' , — -"A complete 
forsaking of the truth." 

507. Explanation.— When used in this way, the participle 
is regarded as a noun simply, and has not the government or 
modifications of the verb. 

Anal.— 1 /.>#. A. & P. Gi\— 3 891—907. 



CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLES. 131 

508. The sense will often be the same, if both the article and 
the preposition ue omitted ; but the one should not be omitted 
without the emission of the other ; thus, " By observing these 
rules." In some cases, however, these two modes express very 
different ideas, and therefore attention to the sense is necessary, 
as directed in the following rule. 

509. RuleS. — When the verbal noun expresses something 
of which the noun following denotes the doer, it should ham 
the article and the preposition ; as, "It was told in the 
hearing of the witness." — But when it expresses something of 
winch the noun jollowing does not denote the doer, but the ob- 
ject, both should be omitted ; as, " The court spent much time in 
hearing the witness." 

510. Of, when followed by another preposition, can 
never be used after the verbal noun ; thus, u By attending to 
these rules," can not be changed into, " By the attending of to 
these rules." 

511. Rule 4 — (1.) The. past participle, and not the past 
tense, should be used after the auxiliaries have and, be ; as, "I 
have written " (not wrote). — " The letter is written " (not wrote). 

(2.) So also, th.Q past participle should not be used for the 
past tense; as, "He ran;" not " Ee run." "I saw;" not 
" I seen." 

512. Explanation. — This Rule can be violated only when 
the past tense and past participle differ in spelling. 

513. The participle in ing is sometimes used in a passive 
sense after the verb to be, to express the continued suffering of 
an action ; as, " The house is building ; " not is being built. 1 

EXERCISES. 

[(Rule 1.)— In the following Exercise, tell which is the verbal noun, and 
how you know it to he used as such. If a noun stands before it, put that 
ncun in the proper case, and give the Rule.] 

My brother being sick, is the cause of his absence. A man 

making a fortune, depends partly on him pursuing a proper course. 

John attempting too much, was the cause of his failure. 

— — Hers going away was not observed. 



A. & P. Gr.— 2 906, and Appendix Ix. 



132 CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLES. 

[(Rule 2).— In the following Exercise, point out the participial notin, 

and tell how you know it to be so used. See what words are before and after 
it, and if not right, according to the rule, make them so, and give the rule for 
the change.] 

Learning of any tiling well requires application. The doing 

our duty is commendable. By reading of good books the mind 

is improved. Of the making many books there is no end. 

By exercising of our faculties they are improved. The giving 

to every man his own is a sacred duty. 

[(Rule 3).— Consider whether the noun following the present participle de- 
notes the doer, or the object of the act expressed by it, and correct the sen- 
tence accordingly.] 

At hearing the ear, they shall obey. Because of provoking 

his sons and daughters, the Lord abhorred them.- The greatest 

pain is felt in the cutting of- the skin. By obtaining of knowl- 
edge, you will gain respect. 

[(Rule 4). 1. — In the following Exercise, when the past tense stands after 
the auxiliary have, or be, change it into the past participle, and give the 
rule for the change.] 

He should have wrote. Have you spoke to the master ? 1 

am almost froze. She had just began to read.- — -James has 

broke his arm. You should have drove more slowly. He 

has drank too much, and should be took home. He might have 

rode if he had chose. The thief has stole the spoons ; I seen 

him do it. John has shook the desk. The boys book is 

tore, and he has went to get another. 

[2. Correct the following errors, and give a reason for the change.] 

I seen him an hour ago. 1 done what you told me. James 

run a mile in ten minutes, and had not began to be tired. The 

school begun yesterday. He ought to have went, or at least to 

have wrote. That is wrong, you had not ought to done it. 

[3. Write short sentences, in each of which shall be one of the follow- 
ing verbs, in the present-perfect or past-perfect indicative active, viz., begin, 
run, write, freeze, eat, drink. Parse the sentences, and apply the Rule. 

4. Write short sentences, with the following verbs in the passive voice ; 
viz., write, begin, shake, sink, speak, give. Parse them, and apply the Rule. 

5. In the preceding exercises under Rules 2, 3, and 4, change the partici- 
ple for a finite verb, and the other words so to correspond that the same 
sense may be expressed.] 



THE ORDER OF TIME. 133 



LESSON 68.— The Order of Time. 

514 . Eule XVIL — In the use of verbs, and words 
that Hi point of time relate to each other, the order 
of time must he observed ; as, " I have known him 
these many years " — not " I know him these many 
years." 

ol5, Explanation. — This Rule is general, and here also the. 
sense is the best guide. The following principles may be noticed 
here : 

1. That which is always true, is expressed in the present 
tense ; as, Vice produces misery. 

2. That which is past, but viewed as continued in the 
present, is expressed in the present-perfect tense; 1 as, I 
have been at school six months. 

3. Verbs having the auxiliaries shall, tvill, may, can, can 
be associated in a sentence with other verbs in the present 
only ; those with might, could, would, should, with verbs 
in the past ; as, I go now that I may be in time. — I went that I 
might be in time. 2 

4. The present infinitive expresses what is cotemporary 
with, or subsequent to, the time of the governing verb ; the per- 
fect infinitive expresses what is antecedent to that time. 3 

EXERCISES. 

[1. In the following sentences, point out the verb which is wrong in respect 
of tense. Put it in the proper tense, and tell why it is changed.] 

It was said that fever always produced thirst ; that heat always 

expanded metals ; and that truth was immutable. He is now 

absent a week. 1 have been abroad last year, If he would 

lend me that book, I will be obliged to him. He can do it if he 

would. 1 intended to have written ; but I still hoped he would 

have come. Rome is said to be built seven hundred years be- 
fore the Christian era. Nero is said to persecute the Christians. 

He has been gone long before I knew it. 

A. &P. Gr.— 1 911. a 916. *920, 921. 



134 COXSTKUCTIO^ OF ADVERBS. 

[2. Write short sentences, and express, in each, something which you 
hoped, feared, desired, intended, to do yesterday, before yesterday ;— which 
you hope, fear, etc., to do to-day, to-morrow. Also what some one did yes- 
terday,— before yesterday,— always does,— does now,— has just now done,— 
will do to-morrow,— before to-morrow night.] 



LESSON 6 9— Construction of Adverbs. 

516. Eule XVIII.— Adverbs modify verbs, 
adjectives, and other adverbs; 1 as, "John speaks 
distinctly ; he is remarkably diligent, and reads very 
correctly" 

Special Mules. 

517. Eule 1.— Adverbs should not be used us adjec- 
tives, nor adjectives as adverbs; as, ''The preceding (not 
the abode) extract.'' (420.) 

518. Eule 2. — Two negatives are equivalent to an af- 
firmative, and should not be used unless affirmation is in- 
tended ; as, " I can not drink any (not no) more ;" or, " I can 
drink no more." 

519. Eule 3. — Adverbs- are for the most part placed before 
adjectives, after a verb in the simple form, and after the 
first auxiliary in the compound form ; as, "He is very atten- 
tive, behaves well, and is much esteemed," 2 

520. Explanation.— This is to be considered only as a 
general Mule, to which there are many exceptions. Indeed 
no rule for the position of the adverb can be given, which is not 
liable to exceptions. The best direction for the use of this Eule, 
is to place the adverb where the sense requires, having 1 due re- 
gard to the harmony of the sentence. This Eule applies to 
adjuncts, or adverbial phrases, as well as to adverbs. 

521. JVJiere should not be used for in whic7i 9 except 
when the reference is to place ; ss, " The situation in which (not 
where) I left him ;" because " situation " does not here refer to 
place. 

A. & P. Gr.— x 923, 924. a 940. 



CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. 135 

522. So is often used elliptically for an adjective, a 
noun, or a whole sentence / as, " They are rich ; we are not 
so" — "He is a good scholar, and I told you so" 

523. Only, solely, chiefly, merely, too, also, and 

perhaps a few others, are sometimes joined to substantives ; 
as, " Not only the men, but the women also were present." A 
prepositional phrase used as an adverbial adjunct of a verb, may, 
as a whole, be limited by an adverb ; as, " He went nearly over 
the hill." 

Remark. — In composition, great care must be exercised in the 
position of the adverbs only, merely, solely, chiefly, and a few 
others ; as, " Only acknowledge their iniquity ; acknowledge only 
their iniquity/' 

524. A negative is often made by the syllables dis, in, im, 
un 9 etc., prefixed to a word. When this is the case, another 
negative is sometimes used, to express a diminished kind of 
affirmation ; as, " He was not unkind." The negative terms are 
such as no, not, neither, nor, never, etc. 

[For a fuller account of the construction and use of adverbs, see A. & P. 
Gr. 923—941.] 

EXERCISES. 

[Adverbs being undeclinable, mistakes are liable to be made chiefly in 
their position ; or in using as adverbs, words that are not so ; or in using 
adverbs where other words are required. Correct the errors in the following 
sentences, as the Rules require : 

(Rule 1).— 1. Point out the modifying words in the following sen- 
tences. If not adverbs, make them so, and give the Rule.] 

Come quick. James does that very good. That was done 

excellent. Time moves rapid. Apparent slow people ac- 
complish much if sufficient steady. You can read excellent 

well.- It is real cold. 

[2. In the following, point out the adverb improperly used. Show why it 
is so ; change it for the proper term, and give the Rule.] 

Thine often infirmities. Come the soonest day possible. 

The soonest time will be late enough. The then ministry 

opposed the measure. The condition where I found him was 

truly bad. He was here last year, since when I have not seen 

him. 



136 CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. 

[3. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain an adverb 
(293—302), modifying a verb or adjective, and see that it is placed as 
direct-d in (519, 520). 

(Rule 2).— 1. Point out the two negatives in the following sentences. 
Show why they are wrong ; correct them, and give the Rule.] 

I can not eat no more. He is not able to walk no further. 

• We can not do that in no way. He will never be no taller. 

Never do nothing of the kind. Time and tide will not 

wait for no man. No man never did that. You must not 

drink no more. 

[2. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain one of the follow- 
ing words ; worthy, just, discreet, kind, obliging, agreeable, happy, firm, etc, 
Then prefix to these words the appropriate negative prefix mentioned above. 
Then insert a negative word in each sentence, and mark the difference of 
meaning with each change; thus, ''He is a worthy man," "He is an un- 
worthy man,"' " He is not an unworthy man." 

(Rule 3). — 1. In the following sentences, place the adverb 'as the Rule 
directs, provided the sense will thereby be clearly expressed.] 

A man industrious eminently.- He is agreeable always ■ 

He sweetly sings, charmingly converses, and prudently conducts 
himself on all occasions. — — He unaffectedly spoke. He man- 
fully has contended for the prize, and certainly w T ill obtain it. 

Time will wait never. He could have not done it. He 

will be always trusty. That disaster might have easily been 

prevented. That piece was executed beautifully. 

[2. The following sentences have the adverb placed according to the Rule, 
but the sense and harmony of the sentence evidently require it to be in 
a different position. Make the change.] 

Men contend frequently for trifles. 1 only saw three per- 
sons. Of the books I sent him, he only read one. James 

can very well read. You should slowly write. He might 

plainly have told him. He not only saw her pleased, but 

greatly pleased. 

[3. Write a number of short sentences, each of which shall contain one or 
more adverbs correctly placed. (See List, 294.) 

4. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain one of the fol- 
lowing adverbs, viz., only, merely, solely, chiejly,. first, at least, and tell the 
word which they modify. Place the adverbs in as many different positions, 
in each sentence, as you can, so as to make sense, and mark the change of 
meaning.] 



CONJUNCTIONS. 137 



LESSON 7 0.— Conjunctions. 

525. Eule XIX. — Conjunction s connect 
words, phrases, or sentences ; as, "He and I 
must go; but you may stay." 1 (315, note.) 

Special Mules. 

526. Rule 1. — Conjunctions connect the same moods and 
tenses of verbs, and the same cases of nouns and pro- 
nouns ; as, "Do good, and seek peace." — "Honor thy father 
and mother" — "He and /saw it." 

527. Explanation. — The reason of this rule is, that words 
thus connected are generally in the same construction : 
that is, nouns and pronouns connected must be in the same case, 
because they are subjects of the same verb, or objects of the same 
verb, or preposition ; and verbs thus connected have usually the 
same subject. In respect of case, errors occur chiefly in the use 
of pronouns. 

528. When conjunctions connect different moods and 
tenses, or when a contrast is stated with but, not, though, etc., 
the subject is generally repeated ; as, " He may return, but he 
will not remain." 

529. The relative after than, is usually in the objec- 
tive case ; as, " Alfred, than whom," etc. 

530. After verbs of doubting, fearing, denying, the 

conjunction that should be used, and not lest, but, but that ; as, 
" They feared that (not lest) he would die." 

531. Conjunctions are sometimes understood between 
words or sentences connected ; 2 as, " John, Charles, James, and 
Edward were in the boat." 

532. In the compound tenses, verbs connected in the 
same tense, have the auxiliary expressed with the first, and 
understood to the rest ; as, " John can read, write, and spell." 
When different tenses are connected, the auxiliary must always 
be expressed ; as, " He has come, but he will not stay." 

A. & P. Gr— 1 945. 3 54. 



138 



CQKJUXCTTOiSrS. 



533. Rule 2. — Certain words in the antecedent member 

of a sentence, require corresponding connectives in the subsequent 
one : thus, 

1. In clauses or words simply connected — 

Both requires and ; as, "Both lie and I came." 

Either or ; as, "Either he or I will come." 

Neither nor ; as, "NeitJier he nor I came." 

Whether — or ; as, " Whether he or I came." 

Though yet ; as, "Though he slay me, yet will I 

trust in him." 

Not only — but also ; as, "Not only he, but also his 

brother goes." 
534:. In clauses connected so as to imply comparison — 
The comparative degree requires than ; as, 4< He is taller 

than I am." ' 

Other requires than ; as, " It is no other than he." 
Else than; as, '*' What else do you expect than 

this." 
A.S as (expressing equality) ; as, "He is as tall 

as I am." 
As so (expressing comparison) ; as, "As thy day 

is, so shall thy strength be." 
So — — as (with a negative, expressing inequality) ; 

as, "He is not so learned as his 

brother." 

So that (expressing consequence) ; as, " He is 

so weak, that he cannot walk." 

Such as (expressing similarity) ; as, " He, or such 

as he." 

Such that (with a finite verb to express a conse- 
quence) ; as, " The difference is such 
that all will perceive it." 
£>35<> Note. — As and so, in the members of a comparison, 
are properly adverbs. 

536. Explanation. — This Rule means, that when any of the 
corresponding terms above, stands in one member of a sen- 



C0XJU£TCTI03"S. 139 

tence, the other term should stand in the other member. 
After " though" " yet " is sometimes understood. 

537. Rule 3. — V/hen ct subsequent clause, or part of a 
sentence, is common to two different out connected antecedent 
clauses, it must be equally applicable to both; as, "That work 
always has been, and always will be, admired." 

53 S. Explanation. — In order to see whether sentences are 
correct according to this Rule, join the member of the sentence 
common to the two clauses, to each of them separately , 

so as to make two sentences. If both of the sentences are 
grammatically correct, and express the sense intended, the sen- 
tence is right — if not, it is wrong, and must be corrected. Thus, 
for example, " He has not, and he can not, be censured," is wrong, 
because if you add the member " be censured" to the first clause, 
it will make " He has not be censured" which is incorrect, accord- 
ing to Sub-Rule 4 under Rule XVI. This must be corrected by 
inserting " been " after " has not," so as to read, " He has not 
been, and he can not be, censured." The different clauses should 
be correctly marked by punctuation. 

539. This rule is often violated in sentences in which there 
are two comparisons of a different nature and government. Thus, 
" He was more beloved, but not so much admixed as Charles." 
Here, " as Charles" is applicable to the clause " so much admired," 
but can not be connected with " more beloved." In such sentences 
as this, the proper way is, to complete the construction of the 
first member, and leave that of the second understood ; as " He 
was more beloved than Charles, but not so much admired " (as 
Charles). 

EXEBOISES. 

[(Eule 1.)— 1. In the following, point out the connected verbs. If they 
have the same subject, put them in the same mood and tense. If they 
must be in different moods or tenses, repeat the subject; and if that is a 
noun, repeat it by its pronoun. Point out the connected nouns or pronouns, 
and put them in the same case.] 

He reads and wrote well. If he say it, and does it, I am con- 
tent. If he beat home, and is well, give him the letter. My 

father has read the book, and will return it to-morrow\ James 

and me ran all the way.- That is a small matter between you 



140 COX J UNCTIONS. 

and I. Him and I are great friends, and so are Mary and me. 

Nobody knows that better than her and me. 

[2. Write short sententes, in which two or more verbs are connected in 
the same mood and tense, and notice particularly (531). Put the verbs 

in the present — in the past— and in the present-perfect, etc. Express the same 
ideas, with the verbs in the passive voice. 

- 3. Write sentences containing two or more verbs in different moods and 
tenses, payiag attention to (52 8); write others, containing two or more 
nouns or pronouns connected in the same case. 

(Rule 2.)— 1. Point out the corresponding terms in the following sentences, 
make the second correspondent to the first, or the first to the second, as the 
sense requires. Supply the correspondent term where improperly omitted.] 

He will not do it himself, nor let another do it for him. — - 

Though he slay me, so will I trust in him. This is so far as I 

am able to go. This book is equally good as that one. 

Nothing is so bad as it can not be worse. He was not only 

diligent, but successful in his studies. It is neither cold or 

hot. 

[2. Write correct sentences, each of which shall contain one pair of 
the corresponding terms above, and state what they express. 

3. In the following sentences, point out the comparative degree, or 
other correspondent terms, and make the one correspond to the other, accord- 
ing to the Rule.] 

James writes better as I do. There were more besides him 

engaged in that business. No more but two can play at this 

game. The days are longer in summer besides they are in 

winter. Has James no other book but this ? This is such 

conduct that I did not expect. It can be no other but he. 

They had no other book except this one. 1 would rather read 

as write. — —He had no sooner done the mischief but he repented, 

[2. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain a word in the 
comparative degree, or the word other or such followed by the proper cor- 
respondent term. 

(Rule 3).— Make trial of the following sentences, as directed in the ex- 
planation. If either of the clauses, when joined with the member of the 
sentence common to both, makes a grammatical error, point it out and 
correct it.] 

He always has, and he always will, be punctual. They 

might, and probably were, good. James is taller, but not so 

strong as, his brother. His book is not so good, though larger 



PREPOSITIONS AKD IKTEKJECTIOKS. 141 

than I expected. 1 This house is larger, but not so convenient 

as that one. 1 ever have, and I ever will say so. •' He de- 
pends and confides in rne," is as correct as, " He confides and 

depends upon me." 1 am older, bat not so feeble as Thomas. 

Warm weather is pleasant, but not so bracing as cold. 

Iron is more useful, but not so valuable as gold or silver. 



LESSON 71.— Prepositions and Interjections. 

540. Eule XX. — A Reposition shows the rela- 
tion betiveen the subsequent of its phrase and the 
ivord which the phrase limits ; as, " The book 
lies on the table" — " The fear of the Lord is the be- 
ginning of wisdom" — " I am confident of success" 

541. Explanation. — Whatever word is limited or de- 
scribed by the prepositional phrase as a whole, is the ante" 
cedent term of the relation. The principal substantive in the 
objective case is the subsequent term. The antecedent is most 
frequently a verb ; as, "He lives in Boston." Often a noun ; as, 
" The love of wisdom." Sometimes an adjective ; as, " There was 
another large of understanding." The prepositional phrase usu- 
ally follows the antecedent ; but it is sometimes placed before it ; 
as, " This is he of whom I spoke." " Of making many books there 
is no end" 

542. Eule XXI. — Interjections have no 
grammatical connection with the other words 
in a sentence. 

543. After interjections, pronouns of the first person ^are 
commonly in the objective case ; those of the second, in the 
nominative ; as, " Ah me ! " — " thou ! " In neither, how- 
ever, does the case depend on the interjection. In the objective, 
there is an omission of the governing' word ; as, " Ah (pity) me ! " 
In the nominative, they are in the nominative independent, de- 
noting the person addressed. 



142 GENERAL RULE. 



LESSON 72.-Gteneral Rule. 

541. In every sentence, the words employed, and 
the order m which they are arranged, should be 
such as clearly and properly to express the idea 
intended ; and, at the same time, all the parts of the 
sentence should correspond, and a regular and dependent 
construction be preserved throughout. 

54o. Explanation. — This may be regarded as a general 
Utile 9 applicable to every case, and therefore comprehending all 
the preceding. Though these embrace almost every thing be- 
longing to the proper construction of sentences, yet there will 
sometimes occur, instances of impropriety in the use, and ar- 
rangement, and connection of words, for the avoiding or correct- 
ing of which, no very specific rules can be given. 

546. Among the evils to be avoided under this Rule, 
are the following, — 

1. The use of words which do not correctly or properly con- 

vey the idea intended, or which convey another with 
equal propriety. 

2. The arrangement of words or clauses in such a way that 

their relation to other words and clauses is doubtful, or 
difficult to be perceived. 

3. The separating of adjuncts from their principals, by 

placing them so that they may be joined to words to 
which they do not belong. 

4. The separating of relative clauses improperly from their 

antecedents. 

5. Using injudiciously, or too frequently, the third per- 

sonal or 2>°&$essive pronoun, especially in indirect 
discourse. 

A. & P. Gr.— 1 974—976. 



ELLIPSIS. 143 

EXERCISES. 

[1. The following sentences are not grammatically incorrect, but, 
from some of the causes just mentioned, are obscure, inelegant, ambigu- 
ous, or unintelligible. Point out the impropriety, correct it, and give a 
reason for the correction.] 

(1) The Greeks, fearing to be surrounded on all sides, wheeled 

about, and halted with the river on their back. (2) Parmenio 

had served, with great fidelity, Philip, the father of Alexander, 
as well as himself, for whom he first opened the way into Asia. 

(3) Lost, a new umbrella belonging to a gentleman with 

a curiously carved ivory head. (4) Claudius was canonized 

among the gods, who scarcely deserved the name of man. 

(5) A farmer went to a lawyer and told him that his bull had 
gored his ox. 

[2. Write the sentences as corrected.] 



LESSON 73.-Ellipsis. 

547. Rule 1. — An Ellipsis, or omission of words, 
is admissible, ivhen they can be supplied by the 
mind ivith such certainty and readiness as not to ob- 
scure the sense. Thus, 

Instead of saying, " He was a learned man, and he was a wise 
man, and he was a good man f we say, " He was a learned, wise, 
and good man." 

548. Explanation. — There is a constant tendency among 
men, to express their ideas in the fewest words possible. 
Whenever, therefore, a word can be spared from a sentence with- 
out obscuring its meaning, that word is often left out. This is 
called ellipsis. Thus, instead of trie full form of the sentence, 
as follows : " I rise at six hours of the clock in the morning, I 
breakfast at seven hours of the clock in the morning, I go to 
school at nine hours of the clock, and study till twelve hours of 
the clock," we can say, (and be equally well understood), " I rise 
at six, breakfast at seven, go to school at nine, and study till 



144 ELLIPSIS NOT ALLOWABLE. 

twelve." This is the origin of abbreviated sentences; and in 
order to parse such, or to understand their grammatical con- 
struction, the words left out must be supplied. 

EXERCISES. 

[1. In the following sentences, leave out such words as may be omitted 
without obscuring the sense.] 

He had an affectionate father and an affectionate mother. 

You may read, or you may write, as you please. Will you 

study, or will you not study ? 1 have been at London, and I 

have seen the queen. A house and a garden. He would 

neither go, nor would he send. 

[2. In the following sentences, supply the words left out, so as to show 

their full construction.] 

It is six o'clock ; we may study till seven. We have done 

it, but you have not. -John will read, and Thomas write letters. 

This apple is larger than that, but not so sweet. — — Give this 

apple to James, that to Robert, and the other to Mary. 1 have 

heard and read much about Washington and the Revolution. 

" Sun, stand thou still upon Gideon ; and thou, Moon, in the 
valley of Ajalon." 



LESSON 74.-Ellipsis not Allowable. 

549. Rule 2. — An ellipsis is not alloivahle, 

when it would obscure the sentence, weaken its force, or 
be attended ivith an impropriety ; 1 for example — 

" We speak that we do know, and testify that we have seen," 
should be, " We speak that which we do know, and testify that 
which we have seen." 

550. Explanation.— The sense will always be obscured, 
when on account of improper ellipsis, the construction of the 
sentence is rendered doubtful, or is not clearly and readily per- 
ceived. When a sentence or clause is emphatic, ellipsis is less 
allowable. The antecedent to the relative, except in poetry, is 

A. & P. Gr.- 1 1149. 



MODEL OF SYNTACTICAL PARSING. 145 

seldom omitted ; and the relative itself, if in the nominative case, 
nearer. The article should be repeated when a different form of it 
is required ; as, "A horse and an ox." 

EXERCISES. 

[In the following sentences, point out the improper ellipsis. Show why 
it is improper, and correct it.] 

Cicero made orations, both on public and private occasions. 

He is the most diligent scholar I ever knew. Thou hast that is 

thine. Thine the kingdom, the power, and the glory. De- 
part in peace, be ye warmed, clothed, and rilled. 1 gladly 

shunned who gladly fled from me. That is the best can be 

said of him. He has a house and orchard. We must all go 

the way we shall not return. 



LESSON 75.— Model of Syntactical Parsing. 

551. In syntactical parsing, the pupil is required, besides 
parsing the word etymologically, (326, 1.) to state its relation 
to other words in the sentence, and the rules by which these 
relations are governed. To illustrate this more clearly, the sen- 
tence parsed etymologically (328) is here parsed syntactically. 

" Give instruction to a wise man, and he will be yet 
wiser." 

Give is a verb, transitive, irregular; give, giving, gave, 

given ; in the imperative, active, second person, sin- 
gular, and agrees with its subject thou, understood. 
Rule VIII. " A verb agrees," etc. 

Instruction, .is a noun, neuter, in the objective singular, object of 
give. Rule X. "A substantive being the object," etc. 

To is a preposition, and expresses the relation between 

the verb give and man, as the remote object of the 
verb. 1 Rule XX. "A preposition shows the rela- 
tion/' etc. 

Anal.— 1 83, 2. 



146 MODEL OF SYNTACTICAL PARSING. 

A is an article, indefinite, belongs to man, and shows 

it to be used indefinitely. Rule III. " The article a 
or an is put," etc. 

Wise is an adjective, compared, wise, wiser, wisest ; and 

ex} reuses a quality of man. Eule II. "An adjec- 
tive or a participle," etc. 

Man is a noun, masculine, in the objective singular, the 

object of to. Rule XI. "A substantive being the 
object," etc. 

And is a conjunction, copulative, and connects the two 

clauses. Rule XIX. " Conjunctions connect," etc. 

He is a third personal pronoun, masculine, in the nomi- 
native, singular ; stands instead of man, with which 
it agrees. Rule IV. " Pronouns agree," etc., and is 
the subject of will be. Rule VI. " The 'subject of a 
finite verb," etc. 

Will be is a verb, attributive, irregular; am, being, was, 

been ; in the future, indicative ; third person, singu- 
lar ; and affirms of its subject he, with which it 
agrees. Rule VIII. "A verb agrees," etc. 

Yet is an adverb, modifying wiser. Rule XVIII. "Ad- 
verbs modify," etc. 

Wiser is an adjective, comparative degree; wise, wiser, 

wisest; and qualifies lie (representing man) of 
which it is predicated. Rule II. "An adjective or 
a participle," etc. 

[Questions similar to those suggested at the close of Lesson 37, may be 
proper here also. 

For Exercises in Syntactical Parsing, the pupil may now return to Lesson 
38, or take any plain passage in the ordinary reading books used in the school, 
as the teacher may direct.] 

*#*. Classes of suitable age and culture may take up the regular 
study of the manual of "Analysis, Parsing, and Com- 
position," prepared to accompany this series. 



PKOMISCUOUS EXEECISES. 147 

LESSON 7 6.— Promiscuous Exercises. 

552, In order to correct the following Exercises, examine 
each sentence carefully, and see wherein it is wrong. See, first, 
whether words that should agree, do so — the verb with its sub- 
ject — the numeral adjective with its noun — the pronoun, 
personal and relative, with its substantive ; secondly, whether 
nouns and pronouns are in the case which the word on which 
they depend requires ; and lastly, whether the words are ar- 
ranged in the order which the Rules require. Having found 
the error, correct it, and give the rule for the correction. These 
Exercises, when corrected, or in the time of correcting, may be 
written out, analyzed, and parsed. 

1. John writes beautiful. 1 shall never do so no more. 

The train of our ideas are often interrupted. Was you present 

at last meeting ? He need not be in so much haste. He dare 

not act otherwise than he does. Him who they seek is in 

the house. George or I is the person. They or he is much 

to be blamed. The troop consist of fifty men. Those set of 

books was a valuable present. That pillar is sixty foot high. 

His conduct evinced the most extreme vanity. The trees 

are remarkable tall. 

2. He acted bolder than was expected. — —This is he who I 

gave the book to. Eliza always appears amiably. Who do 

you lodge with now ?- He was born at London, but he died in 

Bath. If he be sincere, I am satisfied. Her father and her 

were at church. The master requested him and I to read more 

distinctly. It is no more but his due. Flatterers flatter as 

long, and no longer than they have expectations of gain. 

John told the same story as you told. This is the largest tree 

which I have ever seen. 

3. Let he and I read the next chapter. She is free of pain. 

Those sort of dealings are unjust— — David the son of Jesse, 

was the youngest of his brothers. You was very kind to him, 

he said. Well, says I, what does thou think of him now ? 

James is one of those boys that was kept in at school, for bad 

behavior. Thou, James, will deny the deed. Neither good 

nor evil come of themselves. We need not to be afraid. It 

is ail fell down. 



148 PUNCTUATION. 

4. He expected to have gained more by the bargain.- You 

should drink plenty of goat milk. It was him who spoke first. 

Do you like ass milk ? — — Is it me that you mean ? -Who 

did you buy your grammar from ? If one takes a wrong 

method at first setting out, it will lead them astray. Neither 

man nor woman were present. 1 am more taller than you. 

She is the same lady who sang so sweetly. After the 

most straitest sect of our religion, I lived a Pharisee. Is not 

thy wickedness great ? and thine iniquities infinite ? There is 

six that studies grammar. 



LESSON 7 7.— Punctuation. 

553. Punctuation is the art of dividing a written com- 
position into sentences, or parts of sentences, by points or stops. 

554. The design of these points is to shoiv the meaning 
more clearly, and also to serve as a guide to the pannes and 

inflections required in reading. 

555. The principal marks used for these purposes are 
the following : 

The comma (,), the semicolon (;), the colon (:), the 
period or full stop (.), the note of interrogation (?), the 
note of exclamation ( / ), the parenthesis ( ), and the 
dash ( — ). 

* 556. No very definite rule can be given for the length, in 
reading, of the pauses indicated by these marks. As a general 
rule, however, the comma represents the shortest pause : the 
semicolon, a pause double that of the comma ; a colon, a pause 
double that of the semicolon : and a period, a pause double that 
of the colon. 

Comma. 

557 » The comma usually separates those parts of a sen- 
tence which, though very closely connected in sense and con- 
struction, require a pause between them. 

1. In short simple sentences, the comma is not used ; as, "Hope 
is necessary in every condition of life." 



PUNCTUATION. 149 

2. When the logical subject of a verb is long, a comma is usu- 
ally inserted before the verb ; as, " A steady and undivided atten- 
tion to one subject, is a sure mark of a superior mind.'' 

3. A comma is generally used between the members of -a com- 
pound sentence ; as, " Crafty men contemn studies, simple men 
admire them, and wise men use them." 

4. Two words of the same class connected by a conjunction 
have no comma between them ; as, " The earth and the moon are 
planets." "He is a wise and good man." When the conjunc- 
tion is not expressed, a comma is inserted ; as, " He is a plain, 
honest man." 

5. More than two words of the same class connected by con- 
junctions expressed or understood, have a comma after each; as, 
"Poetry, music, and painting, are fine arts." But when the 
words connected are adjectives, the last should have no comma ; 
as, " He was a brave, wise and prudent man." 

6. Nouns in apposition are usually separated by a comma ; as, 
" Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles." But a noun in apposition, 
unlimited, is not so separated ; as, " Paul the apostle." 

7. The nominative independent and the nominative absolute 
w T ith the clauses depending upon them, have a comma after 
them ; as, " I am, Sir, your obedient servant." " The time of 
youth being precious, it should be improved." 

8. A comma is generally placed after an adverb or adverbial 
phrase at the commencement of a sentence ; as, u First, Secondly, 
In general, Indeed,". 

9. When a verb is understood, a comma must be inserted; as, 
" Reading makes a full man ; conversation, a ready man ; and 
writing, an exact man." l 

Semicolon. 

558. The semicolon is used to separate the parts of a sen- 
tence, which are less closely connected than those which are 
separated by a comma. 

559. The parts of a sentence separated by a semicolon should 
contain in themselves a complete and independent proposition, 



A. & P. Gr.~ > 989—100H). 



150 PUNCTUATION. 

but still having a connection with the other parts ; as, " Straws 
swim after the surface ; but pearls lie at the bottom." J 

Colon, 

560. The colon is used to divide a sentence into two or 
more parts, less closely connected than those which are separated 
by a semicolon ; but not so independent as to require a period ; 
as, " Study to acquire the habit of thinking : no study is more 
important." It is also used before a direct quotation. 2 

Period* 

561. The period is used when a sentence is complete, 

with respect to the construction and the sense intended ; as, 
" God made all things." " Have charity towards all men." 

562. A period must be used at the end of all books, chapters, 
sections, etc., also after all abbreviations ; as, A. D., M. A , Art. II., 
Obs. 3., J. Smith, etc. 

563. But no pause is used between the different portions of a 
person's name when not abbreviated. Thus, we must not write, 
John, A. Smith, or James. Brown ; but John A. Smith : James 
Brown. 

564. Such expressions, however, as, 1st, 2nd, 3's, 8vo, etc., 
being not strictly abbreviations, do not require a period after 
them. 

Note of Interrogation. 

565. The note of interrogation is placed at the end of a 
sentence in which a question is asked ; as, " What have you 
done ? " 

Note of Exclamation. 

566. The note of exclamation is used after expressions of 
emotion or passion, and after solemn invocations ; as, 
" Hail ! holy light ! " " Offspring of heaven, first-born ! " " Oh ! 
that he would come ! " 

A. & P. Gr— l 1007—1019. 9 1013—1017. 



PUNCTUATION. 151 

The Dash. 

567* The dash is used where a sentence is left unfinished : 
also to denote a significant pause — an unexpected turn in the sen- 
timent — or that the first clause is common to all the rest '; as in 
this definition. 

Other Characters used in Writing. 

5(>8* Parenthesis ( ) includes a clause inserted in the body 
of a sentence, but which may be omitted without injuring the 
construction of the sentence ; as, " Know ye not, brethren, (for I 
speak to them that know the law,) how that the law hath do- 
minion over a man as long as he liveth." 

569. Brackets [] are used to enclose a word or phrase, ex- 
plaining, correcting, or supplying a deficiency in a sentence ; as, 
" James told John that he [John] was to study." 

570. The Apostrophe ( 9 ) is used when a letter or letters 
are omitted ; as, e'er for ever, tho' for though, or to mark the pos- 
sessive case. 

571> Quotation marks ( " " ) enclose words and passages 
quoted from another. 

572. The Hyphen ( - ) is used to connect compound words ; 
as, lap-dog, horse-jockey : but in permanent compounds, the 
hyphen is not used. Also at the end of a line to show that one 
or more syllables of the last word are carried to the next line. 

573. Section (§) is used to divide a discourse or chapter 
into x^ortions. 

574:. Paragraph ( T ) denotes the beginning of a new 
subject. 

575. The JBrace ( ^ ) is used to connect words which 

have one common term, or three lines iD poetry having the same 
rhyme, called a triplet. 

570. Ellipsis ( ) or (***9 is used when some letters 

are omitted ; as, K g or K**g for King. 

577* The Caret (A) is used to show that some word is 
either omitted or interlined. 

57 S. The Index ( (j@p~ ) is used to point out anything that 
requires special attention. 



152 CAPITALS. 

579. The voivel marks are : the Diceresis (") on the last 
of two concurrent vowels showing that they are not to be pro- 
nounced as a diphthong : the Acute accent ( ' ) : the Grave ( v ) : 
the long sound ( " ) : the short sound ( v ). 

580. The marks of reference are : the Asterisk ('*'); the 
Dagger ( + ); the Double Dagger (J); the Parallel ( || ), some- 
times also the §, ^f, also small letters or figures referring to 
notes at the foot of the page. 



LESSON 78-Capitals. 

581. The letters commonly used in printing are distinguished 
and represented as follows : 

(1.) CAPITAL LETTERS. 

(2.) Small Capitals. 

(3.) Italic Letters. 

(4.) Lower case* (small letters.) 

582. In composition, the following words begin with capital 
letters : 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any 
other piece of writing ; for examples, see the first word of this 
book, its chapters, etc. 

2. The first word after a period ; also after a note of inter- 
rogation, or exclamation, when the sentence before, and the one 
after it, are independent of each other ; ? as, " Love is stronger 
than death." "What did he to thee? How opened he thine 
eyes ? " " Gone to be married ! Gone to swear a peace ! Gone 
to be friends ! " 

3. Proper names, that is, names of persons, places, ships, 
etc. ; 2 as, George Washington, General Grant, Judge Story, Sir 
Walter Scott, America. The Ohio. Sheldon & Co., Broadway, 
New York. 

4. The pronoun I, and the interjection O, are written in capi* 
tals ; as, O my Country ! how I love thee ! 



* So called by printers. A. & P. Gr.- 1 77, 2. 2 77, 3. 



CAPITALS. 153 

5. The first word of every line in poetry ; as, 

Life is real, life is earnest, 

And the grave is not its goal : 
" Dust thou art, to dust returnest " 

Was not spoken of the soul. 

6. The appellations of the Deity ; as, God, Most High, 
the Almighty, the Supreme Being, etc. 

7. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places ; as, 
Grecian, Roman, English, etc. 

8. The first tvord of a direct quotation, when the quota- 
tion l would form a complete sentence by itself ; as, Always 
remember the maxim, " Know thyself ; " Solomon says, " Pride 
goeth before destruction." But when the quotation is indirect, so 
as not to form a complete sentence by itself, the first word does 
not begin with a capital ; as, Solomon says that pride goeth 
before destruction. 

9. Common nouns, when personified y 2 as, "Come, gentle 
Spring" 

10. Every substantive and principal word in the titles of 

books; as, "Euclid's Elements of Geometry;" "Goldsmith's 
Deserted Village." 

11. Historical eras, remarkable events, extraordinary physical 
phenomena, and generally, all words which are used in a special- 
ized sense ; as, The Iron Age, Magna Charta, The^ Declaration 
of Independence, The Polar Sea, Aurora Borealis, etc. 

Note.— Other words besides the preceding may begin with capitals, when 
they are remarkably emphatic, or the principal subject of the composition. 3 

EXERCISES. 

[In the following Exercises, correct the mistakes, and give a reason for the 
correction ; also punctuate properly.] - 

in the beginning god created the heavens and the earth 

dear sir your note is received sorry am i to be told of your sick- 
ness i hope you may speedily recover 

A. & P. Gr,- 1 1123. s 1046. 3 77. 



154 coMPOsriKXN". 

the boston courier makes fun oi a learned disquisition in the 

Philadelphia press george Washington was the greatest general 

of his age yonder comes the powerful king of day 

haste thee nymph and bring with thee 
mirth and youthful jollity 

hail holy light offspring of heaven holy holy holy lord god 

of sabaoth macauleys history of england prescotts con- 
quest of mexico dickens household words the evangelical 

monthly the edinburgh review remember the saying that 

is written death is swallowed up in victory the grecian sages 

were more learned than the roman the erie canal passes 

through the state of new york -be it enacted by the senate and 

house of representatives that etc o my country how i weep 

for thee unto thee do i lift up mine eyes o thou that dwellest 

in the heavens lessons at home in spelling and reading 

part 1 price 8 cents the resources of California comprising 

agriculture mining etc. 



LESSON 79 .—Composition. 

583. Composition is the putting of words together in sen- 
tences, for the purpose of expressing our ideas in writing 9 in the 
best manner, according to the Mules of Grammar, and the 
best usages of the language. 

584. Almost all the Exercises in the preceding Grammar, and 
especially those under the Rules of Syntax, have been framed 
with a view to exercise the pupil in the elementary parts of com- 
position >? 

1. By leading him to vary his ideas, and to express the 
same idea in different forms. 

2. By enabling him to detect and correct errors which often 
occur in the construction of sentences ; and so to put him on his 
guard against similar errors. 

3. By the exercise of forming correct sentences for himself, 
according to the particular directions laid down under the various 
Rules. 



COMPOSITION". 155 

585. In committing his own ideas to writing, in the form of 
compositions, then, all he has to do, is to endeavor to select the 
proper words, and to combine and arrange these so as to 
express his meaning correctly, according to the Rules with which 
he is now supposed to be familiar. The few following hints may 
be useful : 

General Directions to Young Composers. 

586. Spell every word correctly.* Pay proper attention 
to the use of capitals ; always using them where they should 
be, and never where they should not be. (See 582.) 

587* Carefully avoid all vulgar expressions and cant 
phrases, and never use words which you do not understand, or 
which do not correctly express your meaning. 

588. At the end of the line, never divide a word of one 

syllable, nor any word in the middle of a syllable. If there 
should not be room at the end of the line for the whole syllable, 
do not begin it at all, but carry it to the next line. 

589. When you have written what you intended, look over 
it carefully ; see if you can improve it by a better choice of 
words, or by a better arrangement of them, so as to express 
your meaning more clearly (544) ; and mark the changes pro- 
posed. 

590. Copy the tvhole over in as neat, distinct, and plain a 
manner as you can, guarding against blots and erasures, which 
disfigure any writing, dotting your i's, crossing your fs, and 
pointing the whole as well as you are able (553), so that any 
person, as well as yourself, may easily read and understand it. 

591. Try to make every new composition better than the 

one before it. Never write carelessly, arid though it may be 
somewhat difficult at first, a little practice will soon make it easy. 

*#* ^ or additional suggestions and directions, see " Analysis, 
Pausing and Composition," p. 181, and the " Analytical and 
Practical Grammar," of this series. 



* For the principal rules for spelling derivatives, consult the dictionary, or 
A. & P. Gr.-Sl— 76, 



156 CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 



LESSON 8 0.— Construction of Sentences. 

592. Although no excellence in composition is attainable 
without adequate notions of the subject of which we write, 
and intelligent thought in determining and adjusting the 
relations of ideas and in selecting the proper words to express 
them ; yet practice in the mechanical construction of sim- 
ple sentences may render important aid, and give facility, ease, 
and elegance to our style. 

593. Let the following and similar Exercises be used judici- 
ously in connection tcith the study of the regular lessons in the 
grammar. The teacher may extend these Exercises, and should 
in all cases seek to furnish new and fresh material. 

594=. A single proposition requires for its enunciation at least 
two words, sometimes three ; as, 

John comes. 

Paper. . . .is white. 

595. The subject in its simplest form, may be expressed: 1. 
By a noun ; as, " Gold is heavy ; " 2. By a pronoun ; as, 
" She is wise ; ' 3. By an infinitive ; as, To play is pleasant ; 
4. By a participle ; as, Walking is a beneficial exercise. 

59 G. The predicate in its simplest form consists of the 
copula and an attribute ; as, God is good : or it may con- 
sist of only a verb, containing in itself both copula and attri- 
bute ; as, John walks (=is walking). (34:6 — 348.) 

597. The attribute may be, 1. A noun; as, Music is an 
art ; 2. An adjective ; as, Solomon was wise ; 3. A partici- 
ple ; as, The boy was injured ; 4. An infinitive ; as, I am to 
go; 5. A prepositional clause; as, The affair is of conse- 
quence. 

EXERCISES. 
[Compose simple sentences, employing tke following words as subjects :] 

Example. — The bread is wholesome. 
Bread — fruit — school — books — pens — pencils — pupils — children 
— exercise — water — plants — to study — we — carpet — work — to play 
— copper-— gold — the dog — the horse — the elephant, etc. 



CO^STKUCTIOK OF SE2STTE2JCES. 157 

[Write simple sentences, using the following words as attributes in the 
predicate.] 

Example.— The sky is blue. 
Tall — short — narrow — wide — white — green — bright '■ — nice 

— sweet — strong — idle — diligent. 
[Put the following verbs in the predicate, and write out the sentences.] 
Spoke — screamed — wrote — ran — saw — will come — may be 

allowed — must study. 
[*£* These lists may be enlarged at the discretion of the teacher.] 
In the sentences written as above, point out the subject and 

predicate / name the principal word in each. 

Extension of Subject and Predicate. 

598. Both the subject and predicate may be enlarr/ed 

or expanded in various ways by words limiting or explaining the 
principal' elements. (368, 381.) 

599. When such limiting words are necessary to express any 
complete sense, they are called complements ; as, John wrote 
a letter. — He became sick. 

6*00. When they are added at the pleasure of the speaker, and 
may be omitted and still leave a complete proposition, they are 
called adjuncts ; as, The old black horse ran rapidly along the 
road. 

601. Complements and adjuncts are not necessary to the sense 
of all propositions. We may sometimes express ourselves intel- 
ligibly without them. There are, however, many instances in 
which their omission would leave the sense very indefinite or 
obscure ; as, " An avaricious man is a miserable being." Take 
away " An avaricious " and " miserable/' and the remainder, 
"Man is a being," will convey but an indefinite signification. 
Similarly, " The love of money is the root of all evil," becomes, 
when deprived of its complements, "Love is root." 

EXERCISES. 

[Write sentences f employing the following expressions as complements, 
or as adjuncts.] 

Examples. — The little bird is singing. 

The practice of virtue brings its reward. 



158 CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 

Little — of virtue — in the school — at home — this young — the 
kind — his father — an honest. 

[*#* Extend these examples at pleasure.] 

Complements for Predicates. 

602. Predicates of sentences may, it is evident, he ex- 
1 ended, at the will of the speaker, in an almost endless variety 
of ways. Thus, take the proposition " He gave." We may ask, 
What did he give? He gave bread — to whom? — to the poor — 
when? — during the winter season — how ?— kindly. With all 
these additions, we have the following : " He kindly gave bread 
to the poor during the winter season. 

EXERCISES. 

{Write sentences, in which the extension of the predicate shall be 

supplied from the following :] > . 

Many reasons — with a great army — in security — in great haste 
— to his own residence — with many excuses — a month in the 
country — near the city — over the hill — since the day before yes- 
terday, etc. 

60S. The pupil may now be required to compose sentences in 
which both subject and predicate are extended or en- 
larged by limiting words ; as, 

1. A man of about forty years of age was then conducted into 
the room. 

2. The tree in my garden is growing more beautiful every day. 

3. The bright colors of the rainbow extended across the whole 
sky. 

Hermit lived — we marched — a man dropped — the horses were 
left — the men drank — people pretend — they arrived — inhabitants 
nocked — birds began — pillar stands — London is supplied. 

The Introductory Clause. 

004:. In order to add grace and harmony to composition, the 
adjunct, when it expresses time, place, or manner, is often 
placed at the beginning of a sentence, and followed by a 
comma. Such introductory clause should generally be short. 
The following are examples : 



CONSTRUCTION OE SENTENCES. 159 

In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth. 
During that long struggle, he was true to his country. 
In the midst of the confusion, he escaped. 

EXERCISES. 

[Compose sentences with the following introductory clauses."] 
In the mean time — Early the next morning — notwithstanding 
these difficulties — In every part of our land — in ancient times — 
ever since the beginning of spring — soon after these events — not 
knowing what to do — by dint of inquiry, etc. 

605. Sometimes the subject is preceded by two or more 
introductory phrases or clauses, as follows : 

With these words, and with a look of disdain, she passed on. 

[Compose sentences, using the following :] 

On the following day, my arrangements being all completed. 

-Last year, about the middle of August. In the valley of 

the Nile, not far from Cairo, etc. 

606. Remark. — Sometimes a limiting clause or circum- 
stance is placed immediately after the subject ; as, Man, at his 
lest estate, is vanity. 

607 • Caution. — Generally a circumstance or limiting phrase 
should not be inserted between the principal clauses of a sentence, 
as it will be sometimes doubtful to which it belongs ; as, " Having 
finished the manuscript, upon the death of his father, he procured 
its publication." 

Amplification. 

60S. As an additional exercise to give practical application to 
the preceding, the pupil may take the simplest form of sentence 
and add to it all the qualifying words and circumstances which 
can, without any violation of probability, be annexed to it ; as, 

1. The brothers walked. 

2. The brothers walked towards the river. 

3. The brothers walked together towards the river. 

4. The brothers walked together irj silence towards the river. 

5. In the evening, the brothers walked together towards the 
river. 



160 EXEJ&CISES IK COMPOSITION. 

6. In the cool of the evening, the two brothers walked together 
in silence towards the river. 

7. In the cool of the evening, the two brothers, arm in arm, 
walked together in silence towards the river which flows along 
the bottom of their garden, etc. 

{Amplify the following, as shown above.] 

He took leave of his friend. The traveler was received. 

The brother came. They sailed. The men saw. 1 desire. 

He told us a story. They had reached home. The 

people were glad, etc. 

Note. — The learner may sometimes be assisted in this Exercise 
by asking the questions how f when t where t by whom f etc. 
with the simple proposition. 



LESSON 81 .—Exercises in Composition. 

(SQ9. The more simple exercises in composition are, for young 
beginners, so much the better. They should not be required to 
write about any thing with which they are not perfectly familiar. 

1. The following is a very simple and easy exercise. A class 
of pupils may be directed to look at a certain picture in the 
Reading or Spelling Book or Geography, or any other book at 
hand ; and the teacher may excite their attention by ashing 
some questions, or telling them something respecting it, and 
then direct each one, either in his seat or at home, to write a 
description of the picture, together with any ideas that occur 
to him on the subject. This method will furnish an endless 
variety of easy and useful exercises. 

2. The teacher may read or relate some simple narrative, 
or give a familiar description of some object ; and pupils may be 
required to reproduce the same, from memory, in their own 
language. The lessons in geography, history, and other subjects 
ox the daily school exercises, may similarly be reproduced in 
writing. 

3. From pictures, the attention may be turned to real ob- 
jects. The class may now be directed to any object or objects 
within their view, which they may be required to describe and 



EXERCISES IX COMPOSITION". 161 

give their ideas about, as before ; for example, the school-house 
and its furniture — the business of the day, in the form of a 
journal — the principal objects in view to the south of the school- 
house — to the north — to the east — to the west. Each may be 
directed to describe his own house, and the leading objects in 
view from it in different directions, or any object which he may 
choose to select. 

4. Another class of easy and interesting subjects may be found 
in describing familiar objects in natural history- — the various 
seasons of the year, with their employments and amusements — 
the various operations of the farmer, and different mechanic arts 
— narratives of any accidents, or striking events that may have 
occurred. 

5. Short familiar epistolary correspondence* real or 
imaginary. One pupil may be directed to write to another con- 
cerning any tiling he pleases. A post-office might be set up in 
the school, with its letter-box, to be opened at stated seasons, 
and its contents read for the amusement and instruction of the 
school. This exercise, because voluntary, would be entered into 
with spirit, and prove of great benefit. 

6. For the purpose of giving readiness and celerity in composi- 
tion, and compelling abstraction of the mind from every other 
interest save that in hand, there is no exercise of greater value 
than that of impromptu composition. 

Method. Let the pupils of a class be seated in order, with 
slate and pencil, or other writing material in hand» When all 
are in readiness, the teacher announces a simple theme adapted 
to the capacity of the class, and at a signal .all begin to write. 
At the expiration of three, five, or ten minutes, upon the giving 
of another signal, all cease. No emendations are now to be 
made. 

The teacher may now call upon one and another of the pupils 
to read what they have* written, and- when a little confidence 
has been created by experience, the pupils, and afterwards the 
teacher, may, in a kindly spirit^ criticise the several perform- 
ances, and make such suggestions as seem pertinent. 

After a time, these impromptu exercises may be made a drill 
preliminary to a more elaborate essay on the same subject to be 
written out by each pupiL 



162 EXERCISES 1^ COMPOSITION. 

The time allotted, and the particular methods employed, may 
be varied as each teacher's genius and experience, and the wants 
of the class, may dictate. 

7. Themes on familiar subjects may next be assigned, 
such as the following : 

Point out the evils of the following vices and improprieties, 
and make such remarks respecting them as you think proper ; 
viz., Lying, Stealing,. Swearing, Disobedience to Parents, Sab- 
bath-breaking, Discontentment, Intemperance, Ill-nature, Violent 
passions, Penuriousnessy Idleness, Cruelty to animals, Bad com- 
pany, etc. 

Point out the benefits arising from Truth, Honesty, Sobriety, 
Love to God, Love to men, Good nature, Industry, Contentment, 
Kindness to the poor, Keeping good company, Proper amuse- 
ments, etc., and make such remarks as you think proper respect- 
ing them. 

In all cases, with beginners, it is- better to require them to give 
their own thoughts on familiar subjects with which they are 
acquainted, than to give them subjects of an abstract nature, or 
of which they can not be supposed to have much knowledge. In 
the former case, they will be likely to give their own thoughts 
in their own way ; in the latter, they will have to resort to 
books, and instead of giving, their own ideas, will be apt to copy 
the writings of others, without, perhaps,, well understanding 
them. 

8. When the compositions are prepared, the errors in 
Grammar should be pointed out and explained ; mistakes 
in orthography f capitals f punctuation, etc., corrected, 
or pointed out to be corrected^ and then the whole copied, in a 
correct and plain manner, into a book kept for that purpose. 

Compositions of a higher order than those which have been 
suggested, would be above the years and acquirements of those 
for whom this little work is intended, and would therefore be 
improper. 

Having gone through these Lessons, pupils, though young, 
will be well prepared for taking up r with ease and advantage, 
the "Analytical and Practical Grammar of the English Lan- 
guage," and the manual of " Analysis, Parsing, and Composition," 
and for going through a more thorough and critical course. 



PART FOURTH.-PROSODY. 
LESSON 8 2.— Prosody. 

610. Prosody consists of two parts; Elocution 
and Versification. 

I. Elocution. 

611. Elocution is correct pronunciation, and 

the proper management of the voice in reading 
or speaking. 

612. In order to read or speak with grace and effect, attention 
must be paid to correct enunciation, the proper pitch of the 
voice, the accent and quantity of syllables, and to emphasis, 
pause 9 and tone. 

613* Accent is a stress of. the voice placed upon a particular 
syllable in pronouncing a word of two or more syllables. Thus, 
in the word Mrmony, the stress is on the first syllable. In 
" undertake," it is on the last. 

6 14:. When expressed at all, this stress of voice is indicated 
by the mark ( ' ) placed on the accented syllable. 

61o. Words of more than two syllables generally have a 
primary and a secondary accent ; as, communication, dom- 
ineer. 

016. To know the place of the primary accent is indispensa- 
ble to correct pronunciation. A good dictionary is the best guide 
to the proper accent of a word. 

617* Words from English roots commonly keep the accent 
throughout on the root; as, love, loveliness, lovelily, beloved, 
lovesick. This is not so, however, with words from foreign 
roots; as, harmony, harmonious. 

618. In dissyllables which are at once nouns or adjectives, 
and verbs ; the noun or adjective generally has the accent on the 
first and the verb on the last syllable ; as, 



164 



PROSC 
Noun or adjective. 


DY. 

Verb. 


contract 


contract 


present 


present 


presage 


presage 


perfume 


perfume 


absent 


absent 



619. In dissyllables formed by affixing a termination, the 
first syllable is commonly accented ; as, childish, kingdom, toil- 
some. 

020. Dissyllables formed by prefixing a syllable to the 
radical word generally have the accent on the last syllable ; as, 
to retain, to beseem, to bestow. 

II. Versification. 

621. Versification is the arrangement of a cer- 
tain number of long and short syllables accord- 
ing to certain rules. Composition so arranged is called 
Verse or Poetry. 

022. Verse is of two kinds: Rhyme and Blank verse. 
Rhyme is a similarity of sound in the last syllables of two or 
more lines arranged in a certain order. Poetry consisting of such 
lines, is sometimes called Rhyme. ~Blan7c-verse is poetry 
without rhyme. 

023. Every verse or line of poetry consists of a certain num- 
ber of parts called Feet. The arrangement of these feet in a 
line according to the accent, is called JMeter ; and the dividing 
of a line into its component feet is called Scanning. 

024:. All feet used in poetry, are reducible to eight kinds : 
four of two syllables, and four of three syllables ; the long sylla- 
ble being marked by a straight line ( — ) and the short, by a curve, 
{^) as follows : 

Dissyllable. Trisyllable. 

A Trochee — w A Dactyl — ^ 

An Iambus w — An Amphibrach ^ — ^ 

A Spondee An Anapaest; ^ ** — 

A Pyrrhic ■— w A Tribrach *~ *-* — ' 

025. In English, accented syllables are long, unaccented are 
short. 



PROSODY. 165 

626. The Meters in most common use, are the Iambic, 
Trochaic, and Anapaestic. 

627 . Iambic Meter is adapted to grave and serious sub- 
jects ; it has the second, fourth, and other even syllables, accented 
or long ; and the first, third, and other uneven syllables, unac- 
cented or short. Of this verse there are various kinds, some 
having two feet, some three, some four, some five. This last is 
called heroic measure, and is the same that is used by Milton, 
Young, Thomson, Pollok, etc. 

628* In iambic verse set to music, especially in sacred songs, 
stanzas with alternate lines of four and three feet are called com- 
mon meter ; when all the lines have four feet each, long meter. 
Stanzas having three feet in the first, second, and fourth lines, 
and four in the third are called short meter. 

629. When the last line of a stanza is extended to six feet, 
it is called Alexandrine. 

630. Trochaic Meter is quick and lively, and adapted to 
gay and cheerful composition. It comprises verses of one and a 
half, two, three, four, five, and sometimes six feet; sometimes 
followed by an additional syllable. 

631. Anapaestic Meter consists of lines of two, three, 
four Meters or Anapaests, with sometimes an additional syllable. 



APPENDIX. 



I. ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE. 

By an element we mean one of the simplest parts or 

principles of any thing. It performs a distinct office or function. 
Thus, 

An element of a ivord is a letter or a sound. , 

The elements of a phrase are the words of which it is com- 
posed. 

The elements of a sentence are the separate words, phrases, 
or clauses which give specific character to the proposition. 

Note. — Frequently several words, constituting a phrase 
or a clause, make, taken together, only one sentential ele- 
ment. Thus, 

Several stars of less magnitude now appeared. 

The boy who studious (= studious) will improve. 

In every sentence there must be a subject (generally a noun 
or pronoun) and its verb. Other elements may be added to 
limit, modify, or enlarge the ideas which these contain. Hence, 

The elements of a sentence are of two hinds 9 principal and 
subordinate. 

1. Principal Elements are those necessary to the struc- 
ture of any sentence. (Grammatical subject and grammatical 
predicate, 361, 373.) 

2. Subordinate Elements are those which modify or 
limit the principal elements. A subordinate element may limit 
afftfther subordinate element. 



' Principal. 



Subordinate.. * 



APPENDIX. 167 

These are of three kinds — 

(1.) Complementary 9 such as complete the affirmation 
made by a transitive verb — the object ; as, He studies gram- 
mar ; or that made by an attributive verb— the attribute ; as, 
Sugar is sweet. — He became wise. 

(2.) Adjunctive, used directly to limit or define other ele- 
ments. These are adjective and adverbial ; as, A good boy 
studies Ms lesson. — A very good boy studies attentively. 

(3.) Attendants, including — (a) Connectives, conjunctions, 
and prepositions ; and (6) Words of euphony and exclamations. 

This scheme may be presented as follows : 

{Subjective. 
Affirmative. 

SENTENTIAL j rri f Objective. 

fC0 ^ LEMENTARY -' [Attributive. 

Adjunctive jff^T 6 ; 

I Adverbial. 

J Connectives. 

I Attendant i Words of Euphony. 

[interjections. 

In the preliminary analysis of sentences, by the foregoing — 

1. Tell the subject and the predicate. 

2. Say, The principal element in the subject is , limited 

by the adjunct, word, phrase, or clause, — — , etc. 

3. The principal element in the predicate (the affirmer) 

is , (if transitive), limited by the object , or, (if attri- 
butive), used to affirm the attribute of the subject , 

and further limited by the adverbial adjunct, (word, phrase, 

or clause), . 

[*** See Analysis, 37-40 ; A. & P. Gr.— 594.] 

II. THE PASSIVE VOICE. 

An analysis of the English verb will show that in the passive 
voice there is, strictly speaking, only one form, viz., the past 
participle, having the following use3 and connections : 



168 APPENDIX. 

1. Joined directly with a substantive (its subject), to express 
the receiving of an act ; as, He saw me ruined, and helped me. 

2. Used as an attribute of the subject, after an attributive 
verb, most commonly the verb to be; as, I am hurt.— He was 

despised. 

Instead of the commonly received method of parsing the pas- 
sive voice, in all the moods and tenses, we may separate it into 
the verb to be as a copula, and the past participle used as an 
attribute. 

III. ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, AND 
CONJUNCTIONS. 

Many adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions were originally 
nouns or verbs, which have become entirely or almost obso- 
lete, or are abbreviated modes derived from other par|;s of speech. 
The following are examples : 

Adverbs. 
Aghast, from agaze, to look with astonishment. 
Ago, a contraction of agone, from go. 
Asunder, from participle asunder ed, separated. 
Farewell, from an old verb, meaning to go, etc. 

Prepositions* 
JBeyond, from he and gangan, to go, and well. 
Athwart, from an old verb, meaning to twist. 
Among, from an old verb, meaning to mix. 
JBut, from an old verb, (pe-utan), to be out. 
Concerning, participle, used absolutely; as, "Concerning 

virtue. ,, 
Except, (verb), to leave out, etc. 

Conjunctions. 

Since, from seon, to see, (participle.) 

Lest, from lesan, to dismiss. 

And, imperative, from an old verb, meaning to add, 

Yet, from getan, to obtain, etc. 

*** For some curious notes on this subject, see Noah Web- 
ster's Grammar and Tooke's "Diversions of Purley" 



APPENDIX. 



189 



IV. SYNOPTICAL TABLES. 

For the purpose of aiding the pupil in seeing at one view the leading 
characteristics and distinctions of the different parts of speech, the following 
synoptical view is presented : 



' Common . 



t Proper . 



1. Table of Nouns. 

Collective names. 
Names of materials. 

Names of measures, etc. 

r Qualities. 

Abstract \ Actions. 

[ States. 

Particular names. 



[In transition state. 1 



f First. 
'Person.. -( Second. 
L Third. 

C Masculine. 
Gender. . -j Feminine. 
L Neuter. 

f Nominative. 

Case < Possessive. 

[ Objective. 



ARTICLES . 



2. Table of the Articles* 

' Definite The. 

( A, before a consonant, 
j An, before a vowe\. 



Indefinite . 



3. Table of Adjectives. 

( Sensible as, Red. 

' 1. Of Quality -j Comparative Long. 

( Rational Pleasant. 



2. Of Quantity. . . 



Dpfinifp i Cardinal. . . .One. 

f Numeral.. I nenmle - •• • -j Ordinal First. 

( Indefinite Few, many. 

• ] Distributive Each. 

[Measure Much. 



(Time Daily. 

3. Circumstantial . •< Place Eastern. 

( Nation .American. 

4 PARTTrrpiAT. i Descriptive .*" . . .Amusing. 

4. participial j verbal (compound) Unmerited, 



*** Pupils may be exercised in constructing tables and other synoptical 
statements of the parts of speech, and "elements" or parts of sentences, 
at the option of the teacher. 



A. & P. Gr.— * 105. 



170 



APPENDIX. 



4. Table of Profiouns. 



Personal. .. 



Relative. 



f 1 ' 

' Simple . \ Thou, 

[He, she, it. 

f Myself, 

«"*"•* £»,«* 

[ itself. 



We, 

You, 
They. 



Ourselves, 
Yourselves, 

Themselves. 



(Si 



j Who, 



TMch, 



That, 
What. 



f Who(so)ever, 

Compound -j Which(so)ever, 

*» [What(so)ever. 



fWho? 

Interrogative -{ Which ? 

I What? 



„ Adjective ... 



j My, thy, his, her, its, one's. 



I Our, your, their. 



Distributive . . 



Demonstrative. 



j Each, 
' \ Every, 

j This, these. 
jThat, those. 



fNone, 
Indefinite . . . . . J jffi' 
[ Such, 



Either?, 
Neither. 



One, 
Other, 
Another, 
etc. 



5. Table of the Verb. 



(t J (Transitive, {^^ 
§^ § -j Intransitive. 
^j gj [Attributive, 









Regular, 

Irregular, 

Defective. 

f Write, 
'Principal ; J Writing, 

as, 1 Wrote, 

L Written. 



Auxiliary ; 
as, ! . . 



'Have, 
Be, 
May, 

- Can. 
Must, 
Shall, 
Will. 



Indicative. 



Potential. 



Present. 
Pres.-perf. 
Past, 
Past-perf. 
Future. 
.Fut.-perf. 

[ Present. 
J Pres.-perf. 
• 1 Past. 
[.Past-perf. 

j Present. 
1 Past. 



Imperative. . . .Present. 

Infinitive... \ll%$; 

( Present. 
Participial.! Past. 

( Perfect. 



j Sing. 
1 Plural. 



II 



Pers. 
Pers. 
Pers. 



APPEKDIX, 



171 



ADVERBS 
EXPRESS 



6. Table of Adverbs. 

Manner as, Justly, bravely, slowly. 

Place , Here, there, whither. 

Time Now, then, when, often. 

Direction Upward, downward. 

Affirmation Certainly, truly, yes. 

Negation Nay, not, nowise. 

Interrogation How ? why ? when ? 

Comparison More, most, as. 

Quantity Much, some, enough. 

Order First, secondly, thirdly. 

Uncertainty Perhaps, probably. 

Connection (Conjunctive Adverbs, 300.) 



Hoi 

og 



7. Table of Prepositions* 

(Best in as, He is in the house. 

'1. Place ■( Motion to or from.. He went into the house. 

[Best or motion Over. 



2. Time. 



J Time and place At noon, at the table. 

[ Time only Till noon. 



3. Agent or instrument. 

4. Cause 



5. Miscellaneous 
ideas 



lion. . . 
Inclination.. 
Aversion. . . . 
Substitution. 



Beference. . 



By his power. 

For my sake. 

Without. 

For. 

Against. 

Instead of. 

Of. 

Touching. 

Against. 



8. Table of Conjunctions. 



'Copulative.. 



Disjunctive . 



Continuative . 



Distributive . 



( And, also, likewise. 
j Moreover, for, etc. 

j Before, where, after, if, 
i unless, until, etc. 

j Or, nor. 

■Jar 



Either, neither. 



a A„~» n ~+K«*» i But, nevertheless. 

Adversative j Yet ; stm? ^ h9TQ ^ 



«tc. 



172 



APPENDIX. 



9. Table of the Tarts of Speech. 

*** The Parts of Speech and their most common characteristics and 
accidents, may be presented at one view, as follows : 

( First. 

. < Second. 

( Third. 

( Masc. 

Common.. \ ^ ttmcB "* mttlcliaiB « Gender. . . \ Fern. 

( Neuter. 






Nouns . . . 



Pronouns. . 



^Proper. 



Glass names. 

Collective names. 

Names of materials. 

Names of measures. 

j Qualities. 
Abstract.. •< Actions. 

( States. 



Person. 



Verbs - 



Use. 



'Personal. 
Belative. 



Interrogative. 
^Adjective. 



{Transitive. -{^ 

' 1 1ntransitive. 
I Attributive. 



Number.. {|f u f k 

( Nomin. 

Case . ■< Posses. 

( Object. 



) j Simple 



[Regular. 

Form < Irregular. 

[Defective. 



Compound. 

("Possessive. 
J Distributive. 
j Demonstrative. 
[ Indefinite. 

Indicative. 

Potential. 

Subjunctive. 

Imperative. 

Infinitive. 

; Participial. 



3 En 



..02 



AS 



OQC-H 

P 



1. Of Quality. 

Adiectives -1 2 - 2. f Q uantit y-. , 

ves 1 3. Circumstantial. 

4. Participial. 

/f^.*'^7^» (Definite. 

ArUcles.. j Indefinite. 

r Place. 

**»"»* Affixation. 

[Manner, etc. (294.) 

C^uneHons (^^ ^ SSSSSSS^. 

[Disjunctive j Distributive. 

( Adversative. 

I Place. 
Time. 
Agent, or Instrument. 
Cause. 
Miscellaneous. 



Interjections, various emotions. 

Expletives, or Words of Euphony. 



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